Past Research
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C
Cacioppo, J.T., Malarkey, W.B., Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Uchino, B.N., Sgoutas-Emch, S.A., Sheridan, J.F., Berntson, G.G., & Glaser, R. (1995). Heterogeneity in neuroendocrine and immune responses to brief psychological stressors as a function of autonomic cardiac activation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 154-164. (studied 22 older women (ages 56-73); brief psychological stressors heightened cardiac activation, elevated plasma catecholamine concentrations, and affected the cellular immune response; also, individuals characterized by high cardiac sympathetic reactivity showed higher stress-related changes in ACTH and plasma cortisol levels (but comparable NE and E concentrations))
Caffrey B. Behavior... J Chron Dis 1959; 22:91-103 - other file
Caffrey B. (1969). Behavior patterns and personality characteristics related to prevalence rates of coronary heart disease in American monks. Journal of Chronic Diseases 22(2):93 103. Study of months from tend practiced and 17 Benedictine monasteries in the United States and Canada. Compared Benedictine priests, Benedictine brothers, Trappist priests and Trappist brothers. Only monks ages 25 to 64 were included. The dependent variable is prevalent rates of CHD as manifested by rates of myocardial infarction. It was predicted that the group which had the highest rate of CHD would have significantly elevated score some 12 of the 16 Cattell scales. This prediction was supported for nine scales. Study supported the high offices that personality and behavioral patterns are related to different rates of CHD. Benedictine priests had the highest rate of our cartel infarction were significantly different from all other monks on nine of twelve factors related to CHD. Comparison of the monks with the general population revealed that they are not markedly different from the norms presented in the 16 P. F. handbook. Benedictine priests relative to the general population might be considered anxious intra-birds. Characteristics of Benedictine priests seem to fit their description of the modern coronary prone man. The fact that priests did indeed have the highest rates of MI. Trappist priests were judged equally as Trappist Benedictine's but a low rate of MI was found.
Cahalan, D., & Room, R. (1972). Problem drinking among American men aged 21-59. American Journal of Public Health, 62, 1473-1482. (C/S survey involving two national sample of men, which were combined and totaled 1561 men ages 21-59; Catholics and religious non-affiliates had the most drinking problems or potential drinking problems, and Jews and conservative Protestants had the lowest; religious attendance and conservative Protestant affiliation were associated with lower drinking in multiple regression model, although controlled associations are quite weak and p values not given; drinking by significant others was strongest predictor)
Calahan, D., Cisin, I.H., & Crossley, H.M. (1969). American Drinking Practices. NY: United Printing Services (random sample 2746; showed that heavy drinking was inversely related to religious attendance and conservativeness of denomination; stratified by age,sex,SES)
Call, V.R.A., & Heaton, TB (1997). Religious influence on marital stability. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36, 382-392. Call and Heaton (1997) analyzed data from the National Survey of Families and Households (n = 4587 couples) to determine the relationship between religiosity and marital stability. Religious variables included religious affiliation, concordance of religious affiliation between spouses, religious attendance, and religious belief. Using a regression modeling, investigators examine predictors of the log-odds of separation/divorce. Multiple other covariates were examined including mixed affiliation, marital duration, race, parental divorce, previous divorce, full-time employment, education of wife and husband, number of children, birth interval, wife's age at marriage, and others. Persons with no affiliation and mixed marriages had the greatest likelihood of divorce/separation. Wife's attendance and difference in attendance between wife and husband both predicted divorce/separation. Husband's religious belief was positively related to separation/divorce, although this effect diminished to non-significance when wife's marital commitment or wife's non-marital sex attitude were entered into the model. In the final model, wife's religious belief (but not husband's) predicted last separation/divorce. When all religious variables and control variables were entered into the model, wife's religious attendance, the difference between wife's and husband's religious attendance, and the wife's belief inversely predicted the likelihood of separation/divorce (beta =-.083, p<.05, beta = .124, p< .01, and beta =-.199, p<.05, respectively). "Even though the magnitude of the coefficients is not large, religious experience and homogamy have more than trivial affects on marital stability and should not be omitted from models of marital stability." (P. 391)
Cameron, P., Titus, D.G., Kostin, J., & Kostin, M. (1973). The life satisfaction of nonnormal persons. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 207-214. (three case-control studies of handicapped persons (n=144 physically defective persons from outpatient and inpatient settings in Detroit, n=46 physically handicapped persons from Kentucky School for Blind, and n=40 mentally retarded children) were compared to normals (in first study, 144 controls were matched by sex, age, and patient with cases; in second study, matched with 44 controls by sex, race, and age; and in the third study, 49 normal children); first two studies both found that handicapped place more value on religion than normals (p<.001 in 1st study and p=.03 in 2nd; not assessed in 3rd)
Campbell, M. K. et al. (1999). Fruit and vegetable consumption intervention of cancer: The Black Churches United for Better Health Project. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1390-1396. (50 churches pair-matched and randomly assigned to either intervention or delayed intervention. The total of 2519 adults completed both baseline in two year follow-up interviews. The two year follow-up the intervention group consumed 0.85(SE 0.12) servings more than the delayed intervention group (p<.0001). Largest increases were observed among people 866 or older, those with education beyond high school, those widowed or divorced, and those attending church frequently (the highest affect). Office concluded that project was successful model for achieving dietary change among rural African Americans.
Campbell, R.A., & Curtis, J.E. (1994). Religious involvement across societies: Analysis for alternative measures in national surveys. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33 (3), 219-229. (C/S international survey of adults >=18 yo from 22 countries responding to the 1981-83 World Values Survey (face-to-face interviews with 28,764 persons; religiousness measured by attendance, religious voluntary organization participation, feeling religious, belief in importance of religion for children, belief in God, heaven, afterlife, soul, sin, the devil, hell, and reincarnation; Americans were 5th highest nation in church attendance in uncontrolled comparisons and 6th highest in controlled comparisons; belief in God is evident in all nations; beliefs in heaven, afterlife, soul, and sin had moderately high support in all nations, especially English-speaking ones; belief in reincarnation was overwhelmingly negative; there was also overall decline between 1968 and 1983 internationally in religious involvement, except in America and Great Britain; has a terrific Table comparing religious beliefs and activities in 21 countries, and comparison over 15 years between countries, Table 3; Table 2 shows a dramatic increase in religious attendance and religiousness with increasing age for entire sample)
(?) Cancellaro, L.A., Larson, D.B., & Wilson, W.P. (1982). Religious life of narcotic addicts. Southern Medical Journal, 75, 1166-1168. (compared present and past religious lives of narcotic addicts (n=74) in Kentucky with normal controls (n=107) (in North Carolina); baseline demographic characteristics of addicts and normals were not compared; addicts were less likely (p<.001) to read the Bible, pray before meals, or share their faith with others than normal controls; addicts were significantly more likely to experience a decreased interest in religion during adolescence than controls (88% vs 20%, p<.001) and were less likely to have had a salvation experience (38% vs. 75%, p<.001) (all analyses uncontrolled) (regional differences in religiousness may have played a role)
Capps, D.E., Ransohoff, P., & Rambo, L. (1976). Publication trends in the psychology of religion to 1974. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 15, 15-28. (major review and follow-up of Meissner's 1961 review; examined religious dimensions and their inclusion in research articles and books between 1950 and 1974; 2,773 books and publications identified (1,660 articles); most common are studied pertained to clergy; second most common was religion and mental health, and their most frequent was mystical states); about 30% involve mental health and health concepts)
Capps, D.E. (1992). Religion and child abuse: Perfect together. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31, 1-14. (consists of anecdotal case reports and discussion, rather than reference to any systematic research; refers liberally to popular and academic book publications, but not to research)
Cardwell, J.D. (1969). The relationship between religious commitment and premarital sexual permissiveness: A five-dimensional analysis. Sociological Analysis, 30, 72-80.] (C/S survey of convenience sample of 187 college students at New England State University; 30-item religious commitment scale measured 5 dimensions of Glock (ritual, knowledge, belief, self-definition, and consequences or effects); attitudes toward sexual permissiveness measured with a 24-item Reiss (1964) scale; all five religious commitment subscales were negatively related to premarital sexual permissiveness; no control variables; weak study)
Carey, R.G. (1974). Emotional adjustment in terminal patients: A quantitative approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21, 433-439. (C/S survey of 84 terminally ill patients (ages 13-82, 2/3 married, 48% Protestant, 37% Catholic, 6% Jewish, 8% none) at Lutheran General Hospital in Park Ridge, Illinois; rated on emotional adjustment by chaplains using a 6-item adjustment scale and 5-item physical discomfort scale; 6 religious belief questions and religious orientation (IR, ER, Indiscriminantly Pro-Religious (IPR), Indiscriminantly Non-Religious (INR)); Catholics scored higher than Protestant who scored higher than non-Christians on emotional adjustment (63% vs. 49% vs 17% high adjustment, which persisted after controlling for sex and education); of the 61 of 84 patients providing information on religious beliefs, 87% believed in a personal God, 77% believed in Jesus as the son of God, 66% believed in an afterlife and place of permanent happiness; 34% believed in existence of a place of permanent unhappiness; of six religious belief items, only belief in Jesus Christ was related to adjustment (among believers, 66% had high emotional adjustment vs. 29% of non-believers); IR also related to better adjustment (80% high emotional adjustment, vs. 63% of IPR, 50% of ER, and 53% of INR); regression analysis revealed that the six most powerful factors in predicting emotional adjustment were (1) amount of discomfort), (b) feeling of concern by next of kin, (3) previous discussion of death with dying person, (4) extrinsic religious orientation (-.30), (5) education, and (6) feeling of concern from one's local clergyman (.25), explaining 52% of variance) (while religious beliefs and affiliation were unrelated, the effects may have been indirect through other variables)
Carey, R.G. (1977). The widowed: A year later. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24, 125-131. (119 widows and widowers, mean age 57; IR and relig affil unrelated to adjustment)
Carlson, C.R., Bacaseta, P.E., Simanton, D.A. (1988). A controlled evaluation of devotional meditation and progressive relaxation. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 16, 362-368. (randomized controlled trial to determine effects of devotional meditation (DM) on physiological and psychological stress variables (DM here consisting of a period of prayer and quiet reading and pondering of Biblical material), comparing it to progressive relaxation (PR) delivered in 6 sessions, 20 minutes each, over 2 weeks; 36 subjects (undergrads at a Christian liberal arts college in Chicago area) randomly assigned by sex into 3 groups: DM, PR, and wait-list control (WL); four muscle groups monitored by EMG, heart rate, and skin temperature were assessed; also completed SCL-90-R, Spielberger's STAI, Emotion Assessment Scale, and Tension Mannikin scale; DM group had reduced muscle tension in 2 of 4 sites, compared to the PR group which had increased tension in 2 of 4 sites; at post-assessment session, anger and anxiety scores were significantly lower in DM compared to PR compared to WL control group, although no physiological differences between groups were observed)
Carlucci, K., Genova, J., Rubackin, F., & Rubackin, R. (1993). Effects of sex, religion, and amount of alcohol consumption on self-reported drinking-related problem behaviors. Psychological Reports, 72 (3, pt 1), 983-987. (C/S survey of 331 college students in North Eastern U.S. (NY) (52% women; 64% Catholic, 24% Jewish, 12% Protestant; ages 18-24); asked about driving and drinking, and about fighting and drinking; Catholics with more drinking problems than Protestants or Jews (6.0 vs 4.7 vs 3.8, F=6.0, p<.01) (no controls)
Caro, I., Miralles, A., & Rippere, V. (1983). What's the thing to do when you're feeling depressed? A cross-cultural replication. Behavior, Research, and Therapy, 21, 477-483. (C/S survey of 51 non-patient Spanish adults in Spain asked open ended question about "What's the thing to do when you're feeling depressed?"; responses were content analyzed and compared to similar responses by Britains from earlier study; among the 12 most common responses was "taking comfort in one's religion" (4% of both Spanish (4th most common response) and British samples indicated "take comfort in faith/religion" and 2% of Spanish and 4% of British indicated "pray"; still, relatively uncommon response); authors note that until modern times, "Getting the priest's help was one of the main resources Spanish depressed people had till our days." (p 483)
Carp, F.M. (1974). Short-term and long-term prediction of adjustment to a new environment. Journal of Gerontology, 29, 444-453. (prospective cohort study of 133 elders assessed 18 months and 8 years apart to examine adjustment to a new living situation - elder housing; self, peer, and administrators ratings of happiness, adjustment, and popularity were made; church attendance was one of the top six predictors of adjustment as judged by administrator evaluations; attendance was not, however, one of the primary predictors of happiness by subjects themselves or of popularity by their peers (weak association for church attendance)
Carr, L.G., & Hauser, W.J. (1981). Class, religious participation, and psychiatric symptomatology. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 27, 133-142. (C/S survey of a random sample of 219 persons in a small midwestern industrial town (106 whites, 59 Black, 47 Puerto Ricans, 11 Mexicans, and other; 107 males and 112 females (ages not given); psychiatric symptomatology assessed by 22-item langer scale; Lane's 4-item authoritarianism scale used; agreeing response set bias measured by several items; religious participation measured by denomination (CA vs Prot) and by amount of church activities (1-4 scale); social desirability measured by Crowne-Marlow SDS; psychiatric symptomatology is not related to either religious participation or denomination; authoritarianism was unrelated to religiosity or denomination; concluded that religiosity or denomination have nothing significant to do with either authoritarianism or psychiatric symptomatology)
Carrazana, E., DeToledo, J., Tatum, W. et al. (1999). Epilepsy and religious experiences: voodoo possession. Epilepsia, 40, 239-241. (Five cases where epileptic seizures were initially attributed to voodoo spirit possession are presented and discussed.)
Carroll, S. (1993). Spirituality and purpose in life in alcoholism recovery. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 54, 297-301. (C/S survey; 100 members of AA in Southern California (51% male, median age 42; median sobriety 3 years, median education 3 years college); 38-item scale for assessing degree to which person used prayer, meditation, and spirituality (Step 11) and helping of other alcoholics (Step 12) to overcome alcoholism; dependent variables were Crumbaugh's purpose in life scale and length of sobriety; Step 11 (while to some degree confounded by questions assessing acceptance of life, peace of mind, patience) was significantly related to purpose in life scores (r=0.59, p<.001) and length of sobriety (r=0.25, p<.01); number of AA meetings attended was also correlated with purpose in life scores (r=0.24, p<.01) and length of sobriety (r=0.25, p<.01).
Carr-Saunders, A.M., Mannheim, H., & Rhodes, EC (1944). Young Offenders. New York: Macmillan Company.
Carson, V., & Huss, K. (1979). Prayer: An effective therapeutic and teaching tool. Journal of Psychiatric Nursing and Mental Health Services, 17, 34-37. (20 Christian patients with schizophrenia in state mental hospital; weekly prayer and scripture reading (vs. not) by student nurse one-on-one for 10 weeks (focus of prayer and scripture readings were God's love and concern for each individual and the worth of each individual to God); a psychological assessment tool was administered at the beginning and end of the 10 week project; student nurses experienced a greater sensitivity to others, all indicated that their religious beliefs were strengthened, and were more hopeful, realistic, and viewed their clients empathetically; patients, on the other hand, became more verbal about what bothered them and acted out their anger and frustration more, and were more willing to take risks in expressing their inner feelings to their students; patients with prayer also expressed a desire for more change in their lives, and a desire for a more normal life; patients receiving prayer were less inappropriate and more articulate, showed more appropriate affect and increase in verbalization of feelings, and complained of fewer somatic complaints, in comparison with the control group; lots of concern with this study: random assignment to group was not made (student nurses volunteered to be in prayer group); tool for assessing change was not an acceptable psychometric measure; and no statistical tests were done)
Carson, V., Soeken, K.L., & Grimm, P.M. (1988). Hope and its relationship to spiritual well-being. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 16, 159-167. (CS conv sample of 197 BS nursing students from University of Maryland at Baltimore; SWB scale of Ellison and 40-item Grimm State-Trait Hope scale; also measured self-rated religiousness (SRR) and influence of religious beliefs on life (IRB); SRR and IRB associated with higher hope (state and trait, both p<.01 and p<.001, respectively, uncontrolled); state and trait hope remained significantly correlated with RWB, after controlling singly for age, SRR, and IRB (p<.001) (1 control) (R-5)
Carson, V., Soeken, K.L., Shanty, J., & Terry, L. (1990). Hope and spiritual well-being: Essentials for living with AIDS. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 26, 28-34. (C/S survey of 65 adult HIV-positive males (mean age 35) from outpatient clinic in Baltimore, Maryland; hope measured by Beck Hopelessness Scale (1974); Ellison's SWB scale administered; multiple regression of age, religious affiliation, hospitalization, diagnosis, RWB, and EWB on hope revealed a significant relationship with EWB (beta 0.88, p<.05) and RWB (beta 0.19, p<.05)
Carson, V.B., & Green, H. (1992). Spiritual well-being: A predictor of hardiness in patients with AIDS. Journal of Professional Nursing, 8, 209-220. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 100 persons who were either HIV positive or had diagnosis of ARC/AIDS in Baltimore (obtained from advertisements in a Gay-Lesbian newspaper); SWB scale (Palouzian & Ellison); hardiness assessed by the Kobasa Hardiness Scale; hardiness significantly correlated with hardiness at .42, p<.001; RWB was also correlated with hardiness (.25, p<.01); multiple regression revealed that EWB was a significant predictor of hardiness (p<.0001), although did not examine relationship between RWB and hardiness with regression)
Carson, V.B. (1993). Prayer, meditation, exercise, and special diets: Behaviors of the hardy person with HIV/AIDS. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 4(3), 18-28. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 100 volunteer subjects who were HIV positive or had AIDS; Personal Views Survey developed by Kobasa used to determine "hardiness" (related to longer survival in this population); spiritual variable was sum of responses to questions concerning participation in prayer, meditation, use of imagery or visualization, reading religious literature, spiritual retreats, and church services); single item examining frequency of prayer; Kobasa's Hardiness Scale as outcome; spiritual variable (total) was related to hardiness (r=0.18, p=.04), although only prayer (r=0.233, p=.01) and meditation (r=0.262) were related to hardiness when individual items were examined;)
Carson, VB (1997). Spiritual care: the needs of the caregiver. Seminars in Oncology Nursing, 13, 271-274. (provides literature review)
Carver, C.S., Pozo, C., Harris, S.D., Noriega, V., Scheier, M.F., Robinson, D.S., Ketcham, A.S., Moffat, F.L., & Clark, K.C. (1993). How coping mediates the effect of optimism on distress: a study of women with early stage breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 375-390. (prospective cohort study of 59 women with breast CA assessed prior to surgery and at 4 intervals after surgery for one year; POMS index of distress correlated with each of COPE scales, including religion; acceptance, positive reframing, and use of religion were the most common coping reactions; religion as a coping response declined from pre- to post-surgery (p<.02), and then stabilized; religion was significantly related to active coping, suppression of competing activities, planning, and positive reframing; as far as mental health outcomes were concerned, religion was unrelated to optimism or distress at any of the five measurement times)
Cary, G. (1997). Towards wholeness: Transcending the barriers between religion and psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 396-397. (opinion piece written by the Archbishop of Canterbury; good quotes "religion and psychiatry occupy the same cuntry. A landscape of meaning, significance, guilt, belief, values, vision, suffering and healing"; "Halmos went on to argue that, far from being a value-free discipline, psychiatry has implicit values which have a clearly Christian origin; includes wonderful quotes from Andrew Sims' Presidential valedictory lecture)
Catipovic-Veseleica, K., Buric, D., Ilakovac, V., Amidzic, V., et al (1995). Association of scores for Type A behavior with age, sex, occupation, education, life needs satisfaction, smoking, and rleigion in 1084 employees. Psychological Reports, 77, 131-138. (C/S convenience survey of 242 women and 842 men ages 21-64 from Croatia; sample was employees at 3 businesses in Osijek; religious variables were dichotomous responses to " I believe in God " and " I go to church regularly "; these responses were dichotomized into religious and non-religious; type-A behavior assessed with Bortner scale, whereas life satisfaction assessed with multi-item Maslow scale cycle; Of 1084, 710 (65%) were type A and 374 (35%) Type B. Found no significant difference in smokers and non-smokers or religious and non-religious on either Type A or B or on Maslow's scale. Only significant differences were that Type A was more common for women, for managers and clerks vs. manual workers, and university educated vs. primary/ secondary schooled (all p< .05). No relationship between type-A behavior and religiousness) (no controls)
Caudill, M.A., Friedman, R., & Benson, H. (1987). Relaxation therapy in the control of blood pressure. Bibl Cardiology, 41, 106-119. (literature review of efficacy of relaxation therapy in hypertension (four studies), long-term effects of relaxation response (two studies showing reduced end-organ sensitivity to sympathetic nervous system stimulation), and augmented effects with biofeedback (seven studies))
Cavenar, J.O., & Spaulding, J.G. (1977). Depressive disorders and religious conversions. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 165, 209-212. (reports 4 cases of persons who became depressed and then experienced a religious conversion; in the two cases with hysterical personality traits, conversion resulted in a resolution of depression; in the two cases with obsessive-compulsive personality traits, the conversion resulted in suicide; authors claim that in their experience, religious conversion helps to strengthen repression in clinically depressed patients, with effective results in hysterical personality types and ineffective results in OC patients [negative, reductionistic view of religion]
Cederblad, M., Dahlin, L. Hagnell, O., et al (1995). Coping with life span crises in a group at risk of mental and behavioral disorders: from the Lundby study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 91, 322-330. (prospective cohort study using a probability sample of persons from two southern Swedish communities; sample consisted of 148 persons who had three or more childhood risk factors for mental disorder (and born between 1932 and 1947); 70% were socially mobile with white collar or skilled jobs; coping measured by Lazarus' Ways of Coping scale, mental health measured by Health Sickness Rating Scale, sense of coherency by Antonovsky scale, locus of control by Rotter's scale, and Pearlin's self-mastery scale; religion measured by one item, "relies on religious faith"; religion was mentioned as a form of coping by only 1%; persons in other countries don't rely as heavily on their religious faith to cope as persons in U.S.) (negative study)
Chadwick, B.A., & Top, B.L. (1993). Religiosity and delinquency among LDS adolescents. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 32, 51-67. (C/S mailed survey of national sample of LDS youth; examined victimless offenses including drinking alcohol, taking drugs, exposure to pornographic, and premarital sexual behavior; frequency of attacking parents, teachers, and other teens; shoplifting, theft, and vandalism was the final category of offenses; surveyed 2,143 Mormon teenagers ages 14-19 years in New York, NC, Penn, VA, Washington DC, and W Virginia (in contrast to previous studies examining LDS in Western states); found that LDS youth had an internalized set of religious values and practices that were inversely related to delinquent activities (all offenses, offenses against other, property offenses, and victimless offenses), both for high and low moral communities; these persisted after controlling for peer influences and family factors; for boys, betas were -.17, -.22, -.26, -.10; for girls, they were -.10, -.11, -.16, -.14 (all p values .01))
Chalfant, H.P., Heller, P.L., Roberts, A., Vriones, D., Aquirre-Hochbaum, S., & Farr, W. (1990). The clergy as a resource for those encountering psychological distress. Review of Religious Research, 31, 306-313. (research spanning more than 20 years, consistently has shown that the clergy is the most frequently sought source of help for psychological problems in U.S.; about 40% of persons seeking help for psychological distress prefer going to clergy over other professionals; this is a C/S survey of a stratified random sample of 530 of 806 persons in El Paso, Texas; clergy continue to be the most popular source of help for personal problems; source of help selected by respondents who had "used help", "could have used help", or "might have used help" was clergy in 41% of cases, medical doctor in 29% of cases, and psychiatrist-psychologist in 21% of cases; frequency of church attendance (higher), socioeconomic status (higher), and degree of Mexican acculturation predicted selection of clergy)
Chalmers, D.J. (1995). The puzzle of conscious experience. Scientific American, 273 (6), 80-86.] (examines a new theory of consciousness, emphasizing that conscious experience be considered a fundamental feature, irreducible to anything more basic (similar to electromagnetic phenomena; I don't see, as some claim that it provides a physical explanation for non-local effects of intercessory prayer)
Chamberlain, K., & Zika, S. (1988). Religiosity, life meaning and well-being: Some relationships in a sample of women. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 27, 411-420. (prospective cohort study of 188 women subjects involved in a study of personality factors and well-being in New Zealand; mean age 29, almost all married, the majority had children, most were White, and 73% middle class; meaning in life assessed using three measures: 28-item Life Regard Index, 20-item Purpose in Life Test, and 29-item sense of coherence scale; well-being measured using Life-3 to measure life satisfaction and the 20-item Affectometer-2 used to measure positive and negative affect; religiosity assessed with by two King and Hunt subscales (Orientation to Growth and striving, and Salience Cognition), which produce similar results to intrinsic religiosity scales; religiosity was correlated at low levels with meaning in life (.27, p<.01), life regard index - fulfillment (.18, p<.01), LRI- frame (.35, p<.01), SOC (unrelated, expected for meaningfulness subscale (.25, p<.01)), positive or negative affect (unrelated), and life satisfaction (.17, p<.05); when PIL test is controlled, when LRI-fulfillment or LRI-frame or SOC management or SOC meaning, the association with life satisfaction diminishes; a significant relationship persists only when controlling for SOC-comprehensive); concludes that the relationship between religiosity and life satisfaction weakens when cognitive meaning variables are controlled)
Chang, B.-H., Noonan, A.E., and Tennstedt, S.L. (1998). The Role of Religion/Spirituality in Coping with Caregiving for Disabled Elders. The Gerontologist, 38(4):463-470. C/S study of 127 informal caregivers in eastern Massachusetts. 52% Catholic, 39% Protestant; 69% F; mean age 62, 55% cared for parent or grandparent, 52% lived with them; 99% white, mean duration of care, 7 years; mean years of education 13. Measured stressors were elder's functional status (from combined IADL and ADL scale, mean disability 3.5), cognitive impairment from the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ, Pfeiffer 1975), and problem behaviors. Religious coping measured from one item in the Meaning in Caregiving scale (Giuliano, Mitchell, Clark, Harlow, & Rosenbloom, 1990): "my religious or spiritual beliefs have helped me handle this whole experience;" quality of religion is intervening variable, measured as positive affect (e.g. general closeness, similarity of views, ease of conversing about important religious topics); the outcome variable psychological distress is measured as two items: depressive symptoms from CES-D (global distress) and role submersion (i.e. role captivity and loss of self; role- specific distress). Income, education not controlled, supposedly for lack of correlation with outcome variables. Religious coping positively affected quality of relationship between elder and caregiver (b=.24, p<.01); and showed an indirect effect on depression and submersion through relationship quality, but no direct effects on outcomes. No relationship between caregiver stress and religious coping were observed, suggesting (in their model) that religion acts only through quality of relationship to caregiver & thus does not mediate the relationship between stressors and depression or role submersion.
Chang, B.L., Uman, G.C., Linn, L.S., Ware, J.E., & Kane, R.L. (1985). Adherence to health care regimens among elderly women. Nursing Research, 34, 27-31. (C/S study involving compliance; high and low levels of components of care (technical quality, psychosocial, patient participation) were depicted by videotapes of a patient visits to a nurse practitioners; 8 video tapes randomly selected and shown in 26 senior citizen nutrition centers in Los Angeles; 286 elderly women asked how likely they would be compliant if they had been the patient in the tape; intent to adhere was measured by a 5-item Intent to Adhere scale; in addition, education, marital status, importance of examination, social network, patient satisfaction, and religion were also assessed; women were aged 56-89 (46% Jewish, 51% Catholic or Protestant, 3% other); results indicated that the independent effects of technical quality, psychosocial care, and patient participation were not significant predictors of intent to adhere after the effects of covariates were controlled; intent to adhere was significantly predicted by marital status (2.8% of explained variance), religion (1.3%), importance of exam (2%), social network (4.6%), and pre-existing satisfaction (1%); being Jewish was significantly associated with Intent to Adhere) [compliance]
Chase-Lansdale, P.L., Cherlin, A.J.,& Kiernan, K.E. (1995). The long-term effects of parental divorce on the mental health of young adults: A developmental perspective. Child Development, 66, 1614-1634. (prospective cohort study; National Child Development Study identified a nationally representative sample of 17,414 babies born throughout Great Britain during one particular week in 1958, and followed them for 23 years, making assessments at age 7, 11, 16 and 23; 12,537 were reinterviewed at age 23; final sample for analysis was 10,353 children (restricting sample to those whose parents were married from child's birth to age 7); interviewers could determine whether child's parents divorced or separated between age 7 and 16 for 7,966 children (382 divorced or separated; psychopathology was defined as a score above the clinical cutoff on the Malaise Inventory Scale; divorce was associated with a substantial 39% increased risk of psychopathology at age 23, particularly among female children; among children whose parents divorced when the child was an adolescent (ages 11-16), there was a 58% increase in likelihood of having emotional problems by age 23)
Chatters, L. M., Levin, JS, & Ellison, C. G. (1998). Public health and health education in faith communities. Health Education & Behavior, 25, 6 89-6 99.
Chaturvedi, S.K., & Bhandari, S. (1989). Somatization and illness behavior. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 33, 147-153. (illness behavior patterns assessed in 31 psychiatric outpatients in Bangalore, India; consecutive patients who (1) volunteered a complaint of pain or other bodily symptom, (2) organic pathology excluded by detailed PE, (3) duration of illness > 6 months, (4) previously treated by a GP or other physician, (5) more than two somatic symptoms to which no organic basis could be found; Hindus more likely to recall that they were told about the presence of physical illness in them, as compared with Muslims (p<.005); Hindus also more often "told" that they had a somatic cause (physical illness); concluded that Hindus are demonstrating a "denial" and hence reporting they were told about being ill and having a somatic cause) (unclear what this means)
Chavis, M. (1989). Secularization and religious revival: Evidence from U.S. church attendance rates 1972-1986. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 28, 464-477. (age-period-cohort models were estimated using NORC church attendance data from 1972 to 1986 (n=10,655); attendance coded as dichotomize (once/wk or more vs. less); the results (1) support a "stability" model of the relationship between aging and church attendance, (2) strongly indicate the presence of secularization trends for both Protestants and Catholics (since about 1940), and (3) demonstrate that there has been a revival in church attendance for Protestants in the early 1980's; my question is, if there has been decreasing church attendance by each cohort since 1940, then why is weekly church attendance in the U.S. the same now as in 1940?
Chesney, M.A., Agras, s., Benson, H., Blumenthal, J.A., Engel ,B.T., Foreyt, J.P., Kaufmann, P.G., Levenson, R.M., Pickering, T.G., Randall, W.C., Schwartz, P.J. (1987). Task Force 5: Nonpharmacologic approaches to the treatment of hypertension. Circulation, 76 (Suppl I), 104-109. (review) (given that 20 million people in the U.S. alone have mild hypertension, and the potential negative side-effects of drug treatments for HTN, non-pharmacological treatments "must be explored vigorously" (p 104); suggests that for the standard care of hypertensive individuals that "Relaxation-based treatments should also be given early consideration in light of the evidence of their efficacy" (p 105); does not mention religion or spirituality, however)
Chesney, M.A. (1997). Negative affect is potent coronary risk factor (report by M.L. Zoler). Clinical Psychiatry News, September, p 11 (report on Margaret A. Chesney's (professor of medicine at University of California at SF School of Medicine) presentation at the 1997 International Conference on Preventive Cardiology - defines negative affect as (1) long-standing personality traits like hostility and pessimism, and (2) psychological states including depression, anger, and sadness; found that high hostility and high defensiveness is the most potent psychosocial risk factor for coronary disease)
Chopra, D. (1991). Perfect Health: The Complete Mind/Body Guide. New York: Harmony Books. (best selling popular book)
Christensen, C.W. Mental health of clergymen - see other file
Christensen, C.W. (1963). Religious conversion. Archives of General Psychiatry, 9, 207-216. (Q) (mostly negative view of conversion - which is seen as "a special instance of the acute confusional state", p 216)
Christo, G., & Franey, C. (1995). Drug users' spiritual beliefs, locus of control and the disease concept in relation to Narcotics Anonymous attendance and six-month outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 38, 51-56. (prospective cohort study; 101 poly-drug users, mean age 30.5 years, range 20-46 years) in London; 6 month follow-up of 90% of sample; spiritual beliefs significantly predicted location at follow-up (whether in treatment or not) (F=4.3, p<.007) (which significantly predicted drug use) and significantly predicted NA attendance; tendency for spiritual beliefs to be inversely related to external locus of control, and spiritual beliefs were related to shorter prior prison sentences (-.21, p<.05); when location at follow-up and number of prior jail terms were controlled, this explained the association between spiritual beliefs and drug use)
Chrousos, G.P., & Gold, P.W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 1244-1252. (defines and provides history for terms stress, homeostasis, "fight or flight", distress; discusses stress system physiology (CRH and locus ceruleus-norepinephrine/ autonomic (sympathetic) nervous system; provides nice Figure; provides greater references; establishes link between CRH secretion and depression; discusses "increased" and "decreased" stress system activity, and diseases associated with it) (immune)
Chu, C.C., & Klein, H.E. (1985). Psychosocial and environmental variables in outcome of black schizophrenics. Journal of the National Medical Association, 77, 793-796. [health service use] (prospective cohort study of 128 Black schizophrenic patients consecutively admitted to seven hospitals and mental health centers of the Missouri Division of Mental Health; 65 urban and 63 rural subjects; patients interviewed at admission, discharge, and one year after discharge or at readmission (if this occurred before 1 year); Black urban patients were less likely to be re-hospitalized if they said prayers once daily (vs. more often) (chi-square 8.0, df 3, p<.05); Black urban patients were also less likely to be hospitalized if their families encouraged them to continue religious worship while they were in the hospital (chi-square 12.0, 1 df, p<.001); with all Black patients, there were fewer rehospitalizations when the family was Catholic, and more likely to be readmitted to the hospital if the family had no religious affiliation (chi-square 8.7, 3 df, p<.025))
Cisin, I.H., & Cahalan, D. (1968). Comparison of abstainers and heavy drinkers in a national survey. Psychiatric Research Reports, 24, 10-21. (C/S survey sponsored by NIMH involving a 2,746 random national sample, all ages, found that abstainers were more frequent and heavy drinkers less frequent among those frequently participating in church activities, getting together fairly often with people from church, church attendance, use of prayer or church when depressed or anxious, and higher religious fundamentalism scores; 10% heavy drinkers in frequent church goers vs. 22% in those never attending church; this was true for Protestants and Catholic women, but there was no association been church attendance and heavy drinking in men) ** excellent
Clark, CC (1997). Recognizing spiritual needs of orthopedic patients. Orthopedic Nursing, 16 (6), 27-32.
Clark, D.C., Daughterty, S.R., Baldwin, D.C., & Hughes, P.H. (1992). Assessment of drug involvement: Applications to a sample of physicians in training. British Journal of Addiction, 87, 1649-1662. (C/S survey of lifetime and recent drug use in a national sample of 2036 senior medical students (out of 3052 from 23 medical schools, questionnaires sent through mail) and 1772 resident physicians (of 3,000 anonymous questionnaires sent through mail) (ave age 30, 30% women); asked about use of alcohol and 10 other frequently abused substances, either in lifetime, in previous year, or previous month; religious denomination only; who professed "no religion" were over-represented at the high end of the drug involvement continuous (chi-square 205.3, p<.0001, not controlled for other variables); this association was not discussed)
Clark, W.H. (1958). How do social scientists define religion? Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 143-147. (68 scholars attending a meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion responded to the question, "What do you study when you study religion? In other words, how do you define religion?" Scholars included 23 psychologists or psychiatrists, 21 ministers or religious scholars, 13 sociologists, social workers or anthropologists, and 12 philosophers, natural scientists, and others; two top categories were: (1) Concepts of the supernatural, spiritual, or non-material, and (2) Concepts regarding ultimates or The Ultimate)
Clayton R.R. (1969). Religious orthodoxy and premarital sex. Social Forces, 47, 469-474. (C/S survey 887 single undergraduate students at a small, coeducational liberal arts Baptist college in Southern Florida (52% female, 31% Baptist, over 40% were fraternity or sorority members (mid-1960's); religious orthodoxy measured by 6-item Religious Orthodoxy Scale (Putney and Middleton); outcome was premarital sexual intercourse in past year; religiously orthodox men not in fraternities were less likely to have sex than orthodox men in fraternities (21% vs 55%, p=.001) or less orthodox men not in fraternities (21% vs 39%, p=.01); more orthodox non-sorority women less likely to engage in sex than orthodox, non-sorority women (14% vs 39%, p=.001); concluded that religious orthodoxy is inversely related to premarital sex in non-sorority and non-fraternity undergraduates; for those in fraternities or sororities) (no control variables)
Cleary, P.D., & Houts, P.S. (1984). The psychological impact of the Three Mile Island incident. Journal of Human Stress, Spring, 28-34. (C/S survey that is presented as a prospective cohort study of 403 persons living within 5 miles of TMI conducted 6 months apart (telephone survey) (7/79 and 1/80) after TMI incident (3/79) near Harrisburg, Penn; in addition, C/S telephone survey of 1,506 persons living within 55 miles of TMI (? results); results of presumed cohort study revealed that neither church attendance nor social support were related to lower than expected distress in 1/80, but number of friends were so related; confusing paper; does not report on 1,506 person survey; reports on 1/1980 correlations (all variables assessed in 1/1980 except "psychological resources" (control variables) which were assessed in 4/79 (which they initially said was measured in 7/79!)
Cline, V.B., & Richards, J.M. (1965). A factor analytic study of religious belief and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 569-578. (CS random sample of 154 adults from City Directory of great Salt Lake City area (no response rate given, but suggest that only a 3% refusal rate, although highly unlikely given that all subjects were interviewed in person); TAT given with 7 projective pictures (producing 6 religious ratings), followed by indepth interview; Religious Beliefs-Behavior Questionnaire was administered (39-item scale is presented in paper) with 8-9 subscale scores and overall score; factor analyzed all religious items and covariates; produced 11 factors (see article); correlated religious belief and behavior factors with "good Samaritan", "having love and compassion for fellow man", and "humility", finding no relationship in men and weak relationship in women (r's .15-.21); analyses method hard to follow; no controls) (R-5)
Clydesdale, T. (1997). The family behaviors among early US baby boomers: exploring the effects of religion and income change, 19 65-1982. Social Forces, 76, 605-635.
Cochran, J.K., Beeghley, L., & Bock, E.W. (1988). Religiosity and alcohol behavior: an exploration of reference group theory. Sociological Forum, 3, 256-276. (C/S survey data from General Social Surveys 1972-1984; 7,581 adults ages 18 or older, showing that four measures of religiousness (attendance at services, belief in life after death, strength of religious commitment, and religious group membership -- single items) were all inversely (p<.05) related to alcohol use or misuse, after controlling for age, race, sex, urbanity, region, education, income, & prestige; results also consistent with reference group theory; amount of alcohol and relationships between religious variables and alcohol use vary depending on degree of proscriptiveness of religious group)
Cochran, J.K., Akers, R.L. (1989). Beyond hellfire: An exploration of the variable effects of religiosity on adolescent marijuana and alcohol use. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 26, 198-225. (C/S survey on self-reported alcohol and marijuana use in a sample of 3065 adolescents grades 7-12 in three mid-western states; religiosity measured by single items of personal religiousness (1-4 scale), importance of church group activities (1-4 scale), personal asceticism (personal attitude toward alcohol and marijuana), and attributed denominational proscriptiveness; controlled for age, race, gender, and SES; found that religious youth were significantly less likely to use either marijuana or alcohol than their irreligious peers; personal religiousness and participatory salience had the strongest effects; among the weakly religious, the probability of alcohol use and marijuana use, respectively, were 93% vs 63% and 72% vs 12%; no support for moral communities hypothesis of Stark et al 1982)
Cochran, J.K. (1991). The effects of religiosity on adolescent self-reported frequency of drug and alcohol use. Journal of Drug Issues, 22, 91-104. (C/S survey 3,065 adolescents in grades 7-12 in 23 public schools in three mid-western states in the mid-1970's; in 1969, Hirschi & Stark concluded that "for all intents and purposes... church attendance dos not affect acceptance of values assumed to be important deterrents of delinquency" (p 205); since then, "virtually every one of these efforts [dozens of published studies].. has found evidence of a statistically significant, inverse, bivariate relationship between some measure of religiosity... and various indicators of deviant or delinquent behavior" (p 92); after controlling for age, race, gender, and SES, Cochran found significant inverse relationship between both religiousness or importance of church group activities, and use of stimulants, depressants, psychedelics, narcotics, marijuana, and alcohol (for alcohol, only importance of church group activities))
Cochran, J.K., & Beeghley, L. (1991). The influence of religion on attitudes toward nonmarital sexuality: A preliminary assessment of reference group theory. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , 30, 45-62. (C/S survey using data from NORC GSS -- a national probability sample of 14,979 English-speaking persons 18 or older in U.S.; religious attendance, strength of religious identification, belief in after life, membership in religious organization, and religious affiliation (highly proscriptive -- Protestant fundamentalists and Baptists, moderately proscriptive -- Methodists, Lutherans, and Catholics, and less proscriptive (Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and Jews); 3 items asked about premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexuality were always wrong, almost always, strong only sometimes, or not wrong at all; religious affiliation -based on degree of prospectiveness- was related to attitudes (13% vs 25% vs 44%, 50% vs 72% vs 81%, 37% vs 71% vs 82% "always wrong"; church attendance, strength of religious beliefs, belief in afterlife, and church membership were all inversely related to permissive attitudes toward premarital sex (-.22, -.47, -.22, -.18, all p<.05 after age, race, sex, education, occupation, income marital status, residency, and year of survey); for extramarital sex, correlations were -.17, -.51, -.28, all p<.05 (not church membership); for homosexuality, correlations were -.19, -.30, -.29, all p<.05 (but not church membership)); these effects, however, varied considerably by religious denomination, being strongest among Baptists and non-mainline Protestants, and weakest among Jews and those with no religious affiliation)
Cochran, J.K., Beeghley, L., & Bock, E.W. (1992). The influence of religious stability and homogamy on the relationship between religiosity and alcohol use among Protestants. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31, 441-456. (C/S survey of national probability sample gathered during 13 NORC GSS surveys between 1972 and 1989; excluded were Blacks, Catholics and Jews, and some GSS surveys where alcohol was not asked about, ending up with 3772 primarily Protestant persons aged 18 or older; examines the joint influence of religious stability and homogamy; compared strongly religious and weakly religious persons on alcohol use; found that the inverse effect of religiosity on alcohol use increases as religious proscriptiveness increases; the largest effects are found among those both reared in and currently affiliated with a proscriptive faith group or in those who have switched to a proscriptive faith group (and vice versa), thus demonstrating that the effects of religiosity on alcohol use vary across levels of proscriptive religious stability; for religious homogamy, the strongest religious effects are found under conditions of proscriptive homogamy, and the weakest effects in non-proscriptive homogamy; concluded that with increasing awareness of the moral messages opposing use of alcohol, the religion-abstinence relationship increases)
Cochran, J.K. (1993). The variable effects of religiosity and denomination on adolescent self-reported alcohol use by beverage type. Journal of Drug Issues, 23, 479-491. (used same C/S sample of 3,065 adolescents as in 1991 study; personal religiosity is most strongly inversely related to beer and liquor, but is weakest in its relationship to the use of wine; among teens affiliated with a proscriptive denomination, the effects of personal religiosity on alcohol use of any type are stronger)
*[Cochran, J.K., Wood, P.B., Arneklev, B.J. (1994). Is the religiosity-delinquency relationship spurious? Social control theories. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 92-123.] (C/S survey of convenience sample of 1600 high school students ages 15-21 in Oklahoma; religiosity measured by 2-item measure of religious participation and religious importance; arousal measured by thrill seeking, impulsivity, and physicality using multi-item scales; social control measured by internalized control (self-esteem and socialization scale), parental control, institutional control also assessed; delinquent behaviors assessed by 15 items 5-items measuring assault and robbery, 5-items measuring larceny and auto theft, and five items measuring vandalism, arson, and burglary; also asked about truancy and alcohol/drug use; when arousal and social control variables were controlled, the associations between religiousness and delinquent behaviors lost significance, although relationships with substance abuse remained statistically significant)
Cohen, J.B., & Brody, J.A. (1981). The epidemiologic importance of psychosocial factors in longevity. American Journal of Epidemiology , 114, 451-461. (Review)
Cohen, P., & Brook, J. (1987). Family factors related to the persistence of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence. Psychiatry, 50, 332-345. (prospective cohort study of children to identify family risk factors for future psychopathology; randomly selected sample of children in two upstate New York counties; children were ages 1-10 at initial data collection in 1975; interviews conducted with 976 mothers or maternal caretakers; 1983 follow-up located and interviewed 74% of sample (725); assessed were behavior problems, immaturity, and affective problems; later behavior problems predicted in the regression model by parental sociopathy and power assertive punishment; immaturity predicted by family instability, poor housing, and low SES (no religious involvement was initially related, but dropped out when other variables were controlled); anxiety was unrelated to any of variables measured 8 years earlier; affective problems were predicted by low SES and power assertive punishment); changes in 8 variables were significantly and independently predict change in levels of behavior problems, including religious non-participation (after controlling for other factors in a regression model); changes in 6 variables significantly and independently predicted changes in immaturity, including religious nonparticipation (after controlling for other factors in a regression model); changes in anxiety were predicted by changes in 3 variables, but not religious non-participation; changes in affective problems was significantly predicted by changes in 6 variables, but not religious non-participation)
Cohen, S., & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357. (major review) (examines whether the effects of social support on well-being are due to an overall beneficial effect of social support (main or direct effect model) or to its ability to protect or buffer persons from the negative effects of stressful life events (buffering model); evidence for both models is found; when social support measure assesses availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the person's needs resulting from stressful life events, the buffering model is found to be truest; when social support measure assesses a person's degree of integration in a large social support network, then the direct effect model is truest; concluded that both models are true and express different processes by which social support may affect well-being) (nothing on religion)
Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D., Smith, A. (1991). Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. New England Journal of Medicine , 325, 606-612. (psychologic stress increased susceptibility to the common cold, elevating infection rates from 74% to 90% and clinical colds from 27% to 47%)
Coke, M.M. (1992). Correlates of life satisfaction among elderly african americans. Journal of Gerontology, 47, P316-P320. (C/S survey of 166 Black Americans ages 65-88 (87 males, 79 females) in New York; religiosity measured by single self-rated religiosity item and a single item asking about hours per week of church participation; other predictors included adequacy of income, self-rated health, family role involvement, self-reported annual income, and years of education; outcome was Life Satisfaction measured by Diener's 5-item life satisfaction scale; bivariate correlations were strongest for self-rated religiosity and life satisfaction in both sexes and hours or church participation in males (but not females); using multiple regression, found that self-rated religiosity was the strongest predictor of life satisfaction; it was the only predictor in men (p<.01) (explaining 27% of variance of life satisfaction) and was stronger than self-rated health in women (p<.01) (explaining 10% of the variance)
Colantonio, A., Kasl, S.V., & Ostfeld, A.M. (1992). Depressive symptoms and other psychosocial factors as predictors of stroke in elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 136, 884-894. (7-year prospective cohort study of 2,812 persons age 65 or over in New Haven, Connecticut; examining incidence of stroke; 167 new strokes occurred during this time; univariate Cox regression analysis determined that CES-D score (p<.05) and religious attendance (p<.001) were significant predictors of stroke (higher and lower, respectively); religion as source of strength (0-2 scale) and self-rated religiosity (0-3 scale) were unrelated to stroke; when age, sex, hypertension, diabetes, physical function, and smoking were controlled, the significant associations with both attendance and depression disappeared; again, problem of controlling for mechanism of effect)
Coleman, CL, Holzemer, W. L. (1999). Spirituality, psychological well-being, and HIV symptoms for African-Americans living with HIV disease. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 10, 42-50. (this is a descriptive cross-sectional study explore the contribution of spiritual well-being and HIV symptoms to psychological well-being. Sample consists of 117 African-American men and women, mean age 38, living with HIV disease. 26 % of sample had AIDS. Existential well-being, a spiritual indicator of meaning and purpose, more than religious well-being, was significantly related to psychological well-being.)
Coleman, C. L., & Holzemer, W. L. (1999). Spirituality, psychological well-being, and HIV symptoms for African-Americans living with HIV disease. Journal of the Association of Nurses in the AIDS Care, 10, 42-50.
Coleman, S.B., Kaplan, J.D. & Downing, R.W. (1986). Life cycle and loss-- The spiritual vacuum of heroin addiction. Family Process, 25, 5-23. (C/S survey of 111 subjects (50 methadone program participants in Philadelphia with at least a 2-year history of opiate addiction; 50 subjects with diagnosis of neurosis or personality disorder from outpatient psychiatric community MHC; and 31 students at a community college with no history of substance abuse or psychiatric problems); stratified random sampling method used to obtain equal numbers on basis of sex and race; students were younger and had higher IQ (and more education than heroin addicts); fear of death and dying, separation and loss, Hopkins Symptom Checklist, purpose in life, family environment scale, and Coleman Family Background Questionnaire (demographics, religion -- (importance of religion in life now and during childhood, and frequency of church attendance), values/philosophy about life, meaning in life, experience with pain, attitude towards death, addictive behaviors, relationships with parents, incest, living arrangements); religiosity and values/philosophy about life (combined) were significantly different between addicts and students (p<.0001) and between addicts and psychiatrics (p=.0002), using discriminant function analysis; importance of religion in life now was significantly higher among students than addicts (p=.008, uncontrolled, but p=ns for multivariate analysis); importance of religion in childhood was significantly greater in psychiatrics than addicts (p=.02 in multivariate analysis); frequency of religious attendance was significantly greater in psychiatrics than in addicts (p=.005 in multivariate analysis; no other differences between groups on religiousness); concluded that addicts, compared with both normals and psychiatrics, are less invested in religion)
Collipp, P.J. (1969). The efficacy of prayer: a triple-blind study. Medical Times, 97, 201-204 (randomized clinical trial performed by the chairman of the Department of Pediatrics at Meadowbrook Hospital in East Meadow, New York; 18 children ages 1-19 with leukemia; whether or not child prayed daily for by intercessory Protestant group in Washington for 15 months; 15 month survival statistics; 7/10 prayed for children survived vs. only 2 of 8 not-prayed for children; but results (70% vs 25% survival) were not statistically significant).
Commerford, M.C., & Reznikoff, M. (1996). Relationship of religion and perceived social support to self-esteem and depression in nursing home residents. Journal of Psychology, 130, 35-50. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 83 cognitively unimpaired residents of four 200 bed nursing homes in a New York city (77% women, 84% white, mean age 81, 63% Catholic); affiliation, devotional activities, frequency of attendance before nursing home admission, and Hoge IR scale; social support measured with 40-item Procidano and Heller scale, with two subscales one for family support and one for friend support; Depression measured with BDI; self-esteem with Rosenberg scale; religious attendance was correlated with Hoge IR (0.40) and self-esteem (.33, p<.01), was inversely correlated with depression (-.28, p<.05), and positively correlated with family social support (p<.001); Hoge IR was correlated with family social support (.27, p<.05), but not depression or self-esteem; better physical mobility was positively correlated with greater IR; patients who were frequent attenders before NH admission and had higher levels of public religious participation in NH had significantly higher levels of self-esteem (p<.001); concluded that public religiosity was more strongly associated with self-esteem and lower depression than was intrinsic religiosity)
Colvin, C.R., & Block, J. (1994). Do positive illusions foster mental health? An examination of the Taylor and Brown formulation. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 3-20. (review) (reveals that an examination of logic and empirical evidence used to relate mental health with three positive illusions -- unrealistic positive views of self, illusions of control, and unrealistic optimism -- failed to find a solid relationship; concluded that while positive illusions may assist in the regulation of mood, they are not "pervasive, enduring, and systematic" in mentally healthy individuals, as Taylor and Brown claim (or its corollary, that mentally unhealthy persons are more accurate and reality-attuned); instead, they say "Adaptive functioning requires cognizance of antecedent-consequent relations. If individuals distort reality and thereby misjudge consequential, law-reflecting relations, we believe that such individuals must necessarily emit suboptimal, if not maladaptive, behavioral patterns over the long run of life." (p 17)
Compas, B.E., Forsythe, C.J., & Wagner, B.M. (1988). Consistency and variability in causal attributions and coping with stress. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12, 305-320. (students - low religious coping) (C/S survey of 65 undergraduate students in introductory psychology at a public university in northeast (Univ of Vermont, mean age 19.6 years; selected one negative academic event and one negative interpersonal event that they had experienced in the previous week; 29% indicated they sought or found spiritual comfort and support from dealing with a negative academic event; 22% indicated they sought it with a negative interpersonal event; religion was the least common way of coping among 8 different coping strategies, but it was the most consistent method of coping across events)
Comstock, G.W., & Lundin, F.E. (1967). Parental smoking and perinatal mortality. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 98, 708-718. (every third live birth born between 1953 and 1963 in Washington County was determined (n=448), all stillborn babies during that time (n=234), and all deaths during 10 year period (n=431); compared characteristics of mothers of children in three groups; divided into smoking and non-smoking mothers and educational level of father; among smoking mothers whose husbands completed less than 8 years of school, there were 72.7 deaths/1000 live births for infrequent attenders, compared with 33.3 deaths/1000 for frequent attenders (attending once/mo or more); for women whose husbands had more than 8 years of schooling, church attendance did not differentiate perinatal mortality rates whether mother smoked or not; for non-smoking women, no relationship regardless of education level of spouse)
Comstock, G.W., Abbey, H., & Lundin, F.E. (1970). The nonofficial census as a basic tool for epidemiologic observations in Washington County, Maryland. In I.I. Kessler, M.L. Levin (eds), The Community as an Epidemiologic Laboratory: A Casebook of Community Studies, pp 73-97, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. . (newly reported cases of active TB between 1960 and 1964 were matched against the 1963 Washington County census to obtain approximate 5-year incidence rates; persons who attended church at least weekly had the lowest 5-year rates (57/100,000), those who attended church once/month had intermediate rates (84/100,000), and those who attended only twice a year or less had the highest rate (138/100,000); this association between TB and church attendance had been first identified in a study of tuberculin sensitivity among high school students (Kuemmerer & Comstock 1967 -- see below), which found that positive TB skin tests were more frequently among children whose parents attended church less frequently)
Comstock, G.W., Shah, F.K., Meyer, M.B., & Abbey, H. (1971). Low birth weight and neonatal mortality rate related to maternal smoking and socio-economic status. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology , 111, 53-59. (using a larger sample than the 1967 one, and adjusting analyses for the effects of other obstetric and social factors, found that the risk of infant mortality was not significantly affected when "all other study characteristics" (including church attendance) were controlled); attendance only mentioned as a control variable, since focus was on smoking, low birth weight babies, and mortality)
Comstock, G.W. (1971). Fatal arteriosclerotic heart disease, water hardness at home, and socioeconomic characteristics. American Journal of Epidemiology, 94, 1-10. (among 378 white males ages 45-64 in Washington county in 1963; 189 deaths due to arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease occurred during 3 yr period; matched by age, race, and sex, risk of dying from ASCVD was over twice as great for men attending church less than once/week, compared with frequent attenders (RR 2.02, p<.01); after controlling for smoking, SES, hard water, and other risk factors, this risk was reduced slightly but remained robust, with approximately 500 ASCVD deaths/100,000 per year for frequent attenders vs. 850 deaths/100,000 per year for infrequent attenders) (60% risk of ASCVD death); the risk persisted for the next three years after the 1963 survey, suggesting that inability to get to church because of physical illness was not the cause)
Comstock, G.W., & Partridge, K.B. (1972). Church attendance and health. Journal of Chronic Disease, 25, 665-672 (Washington County, Maryland; compared death rates for a 3 to 6 year period for 24,245 frequent church attenders and 30,603 infrequent attenders who participated in the Washington County study census in 1963; found higher relative risk of dying for frequent (once/wk) vs. infrequent attenders of 2.1 for death from ASCVD for women aged 45-64 years; 2.3 for death from pulmonary emphysema (both sexes); 3.9 for death from cirrhosis of liver; 2.1 for death from suicide; there was no increase in death rates from cancer of rectum or colon; adjustments for age, sex, and race did not make major differences in relative risks; mentions here that association may be due to the fact that ill people cannot attend church frequently, and that diminution of the effect over time would be consistent with this kind of spurious effect; the broad range of effects found prompted the authors to conclude that the relationship of church attendance to health is nonspecific rather than causal)
Comstock, G.W., & Tonascia, J.A. (1977). Education and mortality in Washington County, Maryland. Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 18, 54-61. (prospective cohort study of 47,423 persons age 25 or over in Washington County, Maryland who gave complete information on the variables of interest; examined effects of sociodemographic variables on mortality; over the entire 8-year period (1963-1971) there was a strong association between religious attendance in 1963 and subsequent mortality; the associations were then examined for just last two years of follow-up; during that period, there was no relationship between 1963 religious attendance and mortality), suggesting that the relationship between attendance and mortality was confounded by physical illness and sickness; sick people in 1963 simply couldn't get to church, so by the last two years of the study all those sick persons had already died)
Connell, C.M., and Gibson, G.D. (1997). Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Differences in Dementia Caregiving: Review and Analysis. The Gerontologist, 37(3):355-364. Review of empirical studies of non-white dementia caregivers, specifically those examining subgroup differences on race, ethnic, or cultural lines. Case reports, reviews, single group studies, non-peer-reviewed studies excluded. 12 articles based on 11 samples analyzed. 10 articles examined black/white differences, 1 white/Hispanic differences, 1 black/Hispanic differences. Ns range from 28 to 810, and 5 samples contain 100 cases; all studies but 1 C/S, and only 3 multivariate. General findings include: blacks are more likely to be the adult child, friend, or other relative of the dementia patient, while whites are likely to be spouses of the patient. White caregivers more likely to be married, have higher incomes, report more stress from caregiving role. Black caregivers more likely to use prayer, faith, or religion in coping with caregiving burdens, as well as discuss the situation with clergy (Wood & Parham 1990, Wykle & Segall 1991). For whites, coping strategies more likely include support groups and professional counseling (Cox 1993; Wood & Parham 1990 -- see 361 for refs).
Conrad, N. (1991). Where do they turn? Social support systems of suicidal high school adolescents. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 29(3), 14-20.
Conway, K. (1985). Coping with the stress of medical problems among black and white elderly. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 21, 39-48. (Q) (C/S survey of 65 elderly women from low-income elderly housing projects in Kansas City, who had experienced one or more stressful medical problem within the past year; responding to a checklist, 91% reported prayer was used as a coping mechanism; one of the two most common cognitive methods for coping with stressful medical illness was "thinking of God or your religious beliefs" (endorsed by 86%); when asked who helped them when faced with stressful medical problems, the most common response was God (85%) vs. a professional (78%), a friend (60%), a family member (57%), or a minister (28%); Blacks (58% of the sample) were more likely to indicate God being helpful (80% vs. 53%, p<.05) and more likely to indicate that church members were helpful (26% vs. 6%, p<.05)
Conyn-van Spaendonck, M.A.E., Oostvogel, P.M., van Loon, A.M., et al. (1996). Circulation of poliovirus during the poliomyelitis outbreak in the Netherlands, in 1992-1993. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143, 929-935. (population-based study of poliovirus epidemic during 1992-1993 outbreak; C/S survey of 2,400 children ages 5-14 and 3,000 adults aged 40-64 (3,182 persons responded); examined fecal samples for virus isolation and characterization; crude excretion rates for wild polio virus type 3 were 2.5/1,000 persons (5.5 in children and 0.0 in adults), but was 29.7 for Reformed church groups (7/236) and 70.7 for affiliated with Orthodox Reform churches (7/99) (all children), compared with 1/201 for Dutch Reformed); proportion of children who were reported never to have been vaccinated was 28.6% for Orthodox Reformed congregation, 62.5% for Reformed congregation in the Netherlands, and 66.7% for Old Reformed congregation, compared to less than 5% for other religious groups; concluded that the risk of poliomyelitis during the 1992-1993 outbreak was restricted to religious subpopulations rejecting vaccination); some religious groups avoid immunization because of their religious beliefs, thus increasing their risk of contracting communicable diseases in childhood)
Cook CC, Goddard D, Westall R. (1997). Knowledge and experience of drug use amongst church affiliated young people. Drug & Alcohol Dependence , 46(1-2), 9-17. The prevalence of drug use was estimated amongst 7666 young people in the UK attending a church-affiliated, interdenominational festival (but church-affiliation was not a condition of attendance). Percentages and ratios from the self-report questionnaire are reported; no control variables are indicated. Two age groups: 12-16 (n=4500, 41% male), 17-30 (n=3166, 40% male). For 12-16 group, percentages to the 4 statements regarding "Christian commitment" were as follows: given life to Jesus - 59%, prayed daily - 55%, read the Bible weekly - 32%, went to church regularly - 82%, answering all 4 affirmatively - 24%, answering none affirmatively - 7.5%. Percentages for 17-30 group: 84%, 75%, 64%, 87%, 57%, 3.6%. In the 12-16 year-old age group, 23.4% had been offered at least one of a list of drugs and 9.7% had tried such drugs. In those aged 17-30 years, the figures were 46.1% and 23.3% respectively. "These figures are perhaps slightly less than those obtained in secular surveys. Those who gave more positive responses to questions on Christian commitment were less likely to have been offered any of the listed drugs or to have used them, as compared with those who gave no such responses." (p.9, abstract). For 12-16 group, the offered drugs:tried drugs ratio for those who answered all 4 affirmatively was 1.9 compared to 3.2 for those who answered all statements negatively. In the 17-30 age group, the comparison was 1.7 to 2.5. Because of the nature of the event, those subjects who didn't agree with any of the statements may not be fair representatives of non-church-affiliated UK youth.
Cook, J.A., & Wimberley, D.W. (1983). "If I should die before I wake": Religious commitment and adjustment to the death of a child. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 22, 222-238. (C/S survey of 145 parents of children, treated for cancer of blood disorders at a city pediatric hospital who died (40% completed questionnaire, 60% were interviewed; qualitative finding that religion can help compensate for loss of a child (at the time of the funeral, 70% indicated that religious beliefs were helpful in adjusting; by the following year, 80% indicated they were helpful; 40% indicated that their religious commitment was stronger now and 39% indicated no change; quantitative analysis revealed no relationship (after adjusting for other covariates) between adjustment (16 bereavement adjustment items) and response to the question "Would you say that your religious beliefs are now stronger than before your child's illness or weaker, or about the same?" Persons who responded in the affirmative to the question "How helpful were you religious beliefs in you adjustment in that first year (after the death)?" was a positive predictor of change in religious beliefs (although did not report association with adjustment and perceived helpfulness of religious beliefs). Among persons more religious to start, bereavement resulted in a strengthening of religious beliefs. Concluded that religious commitment was both a cause and a consequence of adjustment to bereavement. Three types of religious beliefs were prevalent in dealing with loss: (1) reunion with child in afterlife; (2) child's death as serving a noble purpose, and (3) death as a punishment of parental wrong-doing. Data are consistent with hypothesis that strong prior religiosity is predictive of greater perceived adjustment to loss.
Cooklin, R.S., Ravindran, A., & Carney, M.W.P. (1983). The patterns of mental disorder in Jewish and non-Jewish admissions to a district general hospital psychiatric unit: Is manic-depressive illness a typically Jewish disorder? Psychological Medicine, 13, 209-212. (case-control study of 786 psychiatric inpatients discharged between 8/1/76 and 12/31/78 from Harrow hospital in London; 64 Jewish persons were identified by the Jewishness of their name, case notes, and other methods; to get a rough estimation of the Jewish population in the community, they research unit estimated the it by analyzing the local telephone directory for distinctive Jewish names, and local synagogue affiliations (12.4% of general population vs. 8.1% of the psychiatric inpatient population); thus both numerator and denominator was derived by ethnic criteria (distinctive Jewish names); diagnoses were compared among Jews (n=64) and non-Jew inpatients (n=722); age and sex differences were not significant; diagnoses that were significantly more frequent among Jews were affective psychoses (50% vs 28%, p<.01) and more affective disorders overall (66% vs 43%, p<.01), but fewer schizophrenics (p=.02), dements, personality disorders, and alcoholics (p=ns))
Cooley, C.E., & Hutton, J.B. (1965). Adolescent response to religious appeal as related to IPAT anxiety. Journal of Social Psychology, 56, 325-327. (72 out of 255 adolescents attending a Southern Baptist youth camp responded to a call for conversion, rededication, or special service, and were assessed for anxiety before and after the experience; anxiety measured by IPAT Anxiety Scale on the first day of camp and the last day of camp (for the 72 responders only); there was no difference in anxiety level between non-responders and responders at baseline; there was a significant reduction in anxiety among responders by the end of the camp (although non-responders were not assessed on change in anxiety); they concluded that anxiety does not seem to be related to a response to a religious appeal)
Coombs, R.H., Wellisch, D.K., & Fawzy, F.I. (1985). Drinking patterns and problems among female children and adolescents: A comparison of abstainers, past users, and current users. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 11, 315-348. (C/S survey examined psychosocial factors associated with drinking in a convenience sample of 197 young girls ages 9 to 17; abstainers, former users, and current users were examined; 110 variables were examined; found that family religious values and participation in church-related activities, were highly significant as factors distinguishing drinkers from non-drinkers; in fact, 7 of 9 religious variables were significantly related; importance of fathers' belief in God proved to be most significant (3.3% of abstainers "not very important", compared with 6.1% of past users and 24.6% of current users (p<.001) (even more so than did mother's belief); attendance at religious services also significantly distinguishes abstainers from users (62% of abstainers attended weekly services, compared to 46% of past drinkers and 42% of current drinkers, p<.01); none of these correlations, however, were controlled)
*[Cooper, M., & Aygen, M. (1979). A relaxation technique in the management of hypercholesterolemia. Journal of Human Stress, 5, 24-27]
*[Cooper, M., & Aygen, M. (1978). The effect of Transcendental Meditation on serum cholesterol and blood pressure. Journal of the Israel Medical Association, 95, 1-2]
Cooper MJ, Aygen, MM. (1979). A relaxation technique in the management of hypercholesterolemia. Journal of Human Stress, 5(4), 24-27. A controlled trial was conducted to determine the effect of TM on serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Serum cholesterol levels were measured at beginning and end of an 11-month period in 12 hypercholesterolemic Ss aged 50 years or less who regularly practiced TM. 11 hypercholesterolemic controls who did not practice TM were similarly followed up for 13 months. Ss and controls had neither a history of heart, renal, nor thyroid disease, nor took regular medication, nor made any significant diet alterations during the study period. Paired comparisons show a significant reduction in fasting serum cholesterol levels of TM Ss. The pretest mean serum cholesterol level for the experimental group was 254 9.1 mg per 100 ml. The posttest mean serum cholesterol level was 225 9.4mg per 100 ml which was significantly less than the baseline value (p<.005) and the posttest value of the control group (p<.05). Control group baseline mean was 259 8.9mg per 100ml and posttest mean was 254 11.3mg per 100 ml - not a significant change. Results suggest that the regular practice of TM may contribute, most likely through a reduction in adrenergic activity, to the amelioration of hypercholesteremia in certain Ss.
Cooper R, Joffe BI, Lamprey JM, Botha A, Shires R, Baker SG, and Seftel HC. (1985). Hormonal and biochemical responses to transcendental meditation. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 61(714), 301-304. This study was designed to assess whether TM could influence various endocrine responses in 10 experienced male meditators. Nine matched subjects, uninformed of TM, acted as controls. Each subject conducted 1 test period. Meditators successfully practiced their technique for 40 minutes in the morning while controls relaxed for this period. No significant differences emerge between these 2 groups with respect to carbohydrate metabolism (plasma glucose, insulin and pancreatic glucagon concentrations), pituitary hormones (growth hormone and prolactin) or the 'stress' hormones, cortisol and total catecholamines - although meditators tended to have higher mean catecholamine levels. Plasma free fatty acids were significantly elevated in meditators 40 minutes after completing the period of TM. No clear was thus obtained that any of the stress, or stress-related, hormones were suppressed during or after meditation in the particular setting examined. (abstract)
Corby, J.C., Orth, W.T., Carcone, V.P., Kopell, B.S. (1978). Psychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yoga meditation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 571-577. (autonomic and EEG correlates of Tantric Yoga meditation studied in 3 groups of subjects as they progressed into meditation; proficient meditators demonstrated increased autonomic activation during meditation, whereas unexperienced meditators experienced autonomic relaxation; sudden autonomic activation observed as Yogic ecstatic state of intense concentration achieved; findings challenge the "relaxation" model of meditative states)
Corder, B., Shorr, W., & Corder, R. (1974). A study of social and psychological characteristics of adolescent suicide attempters in an urban, disadvantaged area. Adolescence, 9(33), 1-6.
Cornish, J.D. (1998). Mormons and health: impact of Latter-Day Saints' scriptures on health and health practices. Journal of the Medical Association of Georgia, 87, 303-304.
Corrington JE (1989). Spirituality and recovery: Relationships between levels of spirituality, contentment, and stress during recovery from alcoholism in AA. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 6 (3/4), 151-165. (C/S survey of AA meetings in Columbia, Maryland over a 3-month period; sample=30 (67% men, 100% white, ages 18-70); duration of AA participation was 1 day to 336 months; spirituality measured by Spirituality Self-Assessment Scale (SSAS), a 35-item measure (Whitfield, 1984); general contentment and stress in life measured by standard multi-item scales; duration of AA participation was positively correlated with contentment and spirituality; also strong relationship between spirituality and contentment, independent of AA participation; concluded that AA involvement helps recovering alcoholics manage their stress better). In addition, if a person continues at AA, "things will not necessarily get better, but one's ability to handle and deal positively with stressors in life will most likely improve. Amount of time in AA was not as important as what was done with that time in relation to spirituality during recovery. Persons more spiritually aware and evolved (based on SSAS score) were also more content with their life and surroundings (based on GCS).
Costa, P.T., McCrae, R.R., & Norris, A.H (1981). Personal adjustment to aging: Longitudinal prediction from neuroticism and extraversion. Journal of Gerontology, 36, 78-85. (prospective cohort study of 557 men ages 17 to 97 in Baltimore Longitudinal Study (the majority are in scientific, professional, or managerial positions, and 71% are college graduates); Chicago Attitude Inventory (CAI) (personal adjustment) administered at 1st, 2nd, 5th, and 9th visits; Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS) (with neuroticism, extroversion, and thinking introversion subscales) given on 1st and 2nd visits; first, Pearson correlations between CAI scales and concurrent GZTS taken within the 2 years of their 1st CAI (for cross-sectional associations); second, baseline GZTS scores predicted CAI scores from second administration (separated average of 5.3 years, range 2-10 years); third, baseline GZTS scores predicted CAI scores from third administration (separated average of 12.6 years, range 10-17 years); religion measured by 7-item section of CAI; results for concurrent analyses in men ages 18-49, indicated that religion related inversely to neuroticism (-.16, p<.01), positively with extraversion (.07, p=ns) and especially with thinking introversion (restraint and thoughtfulness) (.14, p<.01); among men ages 50-97, religion was weakly related to neuroticism (.04, p=ns), stronger with extroversion (.08, p=ns), and especially with thinking introversion (.18, p<.01); for the 2-10 year and 10-17 year predictions, neuroticism was a weaker prediction of religion than was extroversion (-.03 vs +.09 and -.09 vs +.13, respectively) (no controls)
Cothran, M.M., & Harvey, P.D. (1986). Delusional thinking in psychotics: Correlates of religious content. Psychological Reports, 58, 191-199. (case-control study with cases consisting of 18 manic and 23 schizophrenics consecutively admitted to a state psychiatric facility in New York; 17 non-delusional patients (9 manic, 8 schizo), 11 delusional patients (5 manic, 6 schizo), 13 delusional with religious content (4 manic, 9 schizo), and 53 normal controls; thus of 24 delusional patients, 13 had some religious content (13/24); religious delusions not significantly more prevalent in either manics or schizos; while patients with religious delusion report high religiosity, they report less identification with fundamental beliefs and less support for organized religion than do non-delusional patients and normal controls; thus, these findings do not support other's conclusion that religious content in psychotic delusions result from being more fundamentalistic or intensely religious.)
Covinsky, K. E., Kahana, E., Chin, M. H., Palmer, R., Fortinsky, R.H., Landefield, C.S. (1999). Depressive symptoms and three-year mortality in older hospitalized medical patients. Annals of Internal Medicine, 130, 563-569. (573 patients aged 70 years or older on the general medical service on the teaching hospital; subjects followed for three years after their hospital admission and mortality determined by national death index. Depressive symptoms were measured by the 15-item geriatric depression scale (Sheikh,J & Yesavage JA. Geriatric depression scale (GDS): recent development of a shorter version. Clinical Gerontologist, 1986, 6:155-173). Subjects with six positive symptoms were significantly more likely to die during the follow-up. (Hazard ratio 1.56, 95% confidence interval 1.22-2.00, p<.001); after adjustment for age, acute illness severity, co-morbid medical illness, functional impairment, and cognitive impairment, subjects with six or more depressive symptoms continued to have higher mortality during follow-up (hazard ratio 1.34 (95% CI 1.03-1.73).
Courtenay, B.C., Poon, L.W., Martin, P., Clayton, G.M., & Johnson, M.A. (1992). Religiosity and adaptation in the oldest-old. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 34, 47-56. (C/S survey of 165 adults aged 60 to 100+ years old in Georgia Centenarian Study; characteristics of sample or how it was selected were not given in paper; religiosity measured by 23-item questionnaire of Faulkner and DeJong (1966) (belief, knowledge, ritual (attendance, prayer, Bible), experience, and consequential); ritual dimension was uniformly POSITIVELY related to health conditions: cardiovascular (.22, p<.01), neurological (.24, p<.01), musculoskeletal (.24, p<.05), respiratory (.23, p<.01), and overall (.23, p<.01); overall religiosity score was positively related to neurological and musculoskeletal disorders, causing authors to conclude that religious persons likely to use religious coping as a method of dealing with health problems; for overall religiosity and each of the 5 dimensions, centenarians (n=31-35) had the highest mean score, followed by octogenarians (n=33-37) and the sexagenarians (n=44-47); suggests that for religious belief, knowledge, and reliance on religion in daily life, there is a linear increase with age)
Covalt, N.K. (1960). The meaning of religion to older people. Geriatrics, 15, 658-664. [negative] (Q)
Cox, H., & Hammonds, A. (1988). Religiosity, aging, and life satisfaction. Journal of Religion & Aging, 5, 1-21. (R)
Craigie, F.C., Liu, I.Y., Larson, D.B., & Lyons, J.S. (1988). A systematic analysis of religious variables in the Journal of Family Practice, 1976-1986. Journal of Family Practice, 27, 509-513 (reviewed 1,086 articles published in JFP between 1976 and 1986; found that religious variables included at low rate (1.9% or 3.5% of articles with a quantifiable measure), even in articles with psychosocial content, and denomination seemed to be the major variable that was assessed)
Craigie, F.C., Larson, D.B., & Liu, I.Y. (1990). References to religion in the Journal of Family Practice: Dimensions and valence of spirituality. Journal of Family Practice, 30, 477-480. (of a total of 1,086 articles published in JFP between 1976 and 1986, only 4.8% made references to religion; evaluated with respect to whether a positive, negative, or neutral view of the influence of spirituality was implied; of 64 religious variables assessed in 52 clinical studies, 25 were associated with positive implications, 30 had neutral implications, and 9 had a negative implications; religious ceremonies and practices, relationship with God, social support or influence, were found to have positive implications in 24 of 27 cases).
Craigie, F. C., Hobbs, R. F. (1999). Spiritual perspectives and practices of family positions with an expressed interest in spirituality. Family Medicine, 31, 578-585. (Semi structured interviews conducted with 12 family physicians in three regions of the country with an expressed interest in spirituality)
Crandall, J.E., & Rasmussen, R.D. (1975). Purpose in life as related to specific values. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 483-485. (C/S survey of convenience sample; first study involved 86 volunteers (46 male) from an introductory psychology class in Idaho; second study involved 71 volunteers (34 male) from an adolescent psychology class; Allport & Ross's I-E religious orientation scale; Crumbaugh's 20-item Purpose in Life (PIL) test and terminal and instrumental Values Survey; PIL scores dichotomized into high and low groups; High-scoring PIL group attributed greater importance to salvation (the only religious item in Values Survey; in study 2, subjects given PIL and I-E scales; IR correlated with higher PIL (p<.01), whereas no correlation with ER (r=.00); concluded that"genuine endorsement of religious values apparently contributes to increased meaningfulness of life among a normal range of lay people (p 485)"
Crawford, M.E., Handal, P.J., & Wiener, R.L. (1989). The relationship between religion and mental health/distress. Review of Religious Research, 31, 16-22. (C/S survey of a convenience sample of 226/550 persons living primarily in the Midwest and Southeast U.S.; religiosity measured using the integration subscale of Personal Religiosity Inventory; Langner Symptom Survey measured psychological distress, positive psychological adjustment was assessed using the Flanagan Life Satisfaction Questionnaire and the St. Louis University Role Functioning Inventory; high (46), medium (141), and low (39) religiosity groups created; high religiosity group scored significantly lower on psychological distress (p=.005), higher on FLSQ life satisfaction (p=.001), and higher on SLURFI (p=.005); effects were particularly strong among women (n=139))
Creagan, E.T. (1997). Attitude and disposition: Do they make a difference in cancer survival? Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 72, 160-164. (review) "A social support system and an element of spirituality and religion seem to be the most consistent predictors of quality of life and possible survival among patients with advanced malignant disease". (p 160) "... among the coping methods of long-term cancer survivors, the predominent strategy is spiritual" (p 163) (great quotes!) Literary review of spiritual and psychogenic factors influencing medicine.Included Love, Medicine, and Miracles (Siegel, 1986), Meaning and Medicine (Dossey, 1992), Remarkable Recovery (Hirshberg and Barasch, 1995), and Living Beyond Limits (Spiegel, 1993). Clinical studies cited include 1) Cassileth et. al. 1985 in the New England Journal of Medicine (312: 1551-1555) 2) House et. al. 1988 in Science (24: 540-545 3) Spiegel et. al. 1989 in Lancet (2: 888-891), 4) Fawzy et. al. 1993 in Archives of General Psychiatry (50: 681-689), 5) Richardson et. al. 1990 in Journal of Clinical Oncology (8: 356-364), 6) Morgenstern et. al. 1984 in Journal of Chronic Diseases (37: 273-282), 7) Jamison et. al. 1987 in Journal of Clinical Oncology (5: 768-772), 8) Byrd 1988 in Southern Medical Journal (81: 826-829), 9) Halstead 1994 in Cancer Nursing (17: 94-100), 10) Creagan 1993 in Mayo Clinic Proc. (68: 161-167), 11) Allison et. al. 1995 in Mayo Clinic Proc. (70: 734-742), 12) Goodman et. al. 1996 in Mayo Clinic Proc. (71: 729-734). Conclusions: 1) Among patients with cancer, the biological process of the neoplasm is the most consistent factor of survival. 2) Psychosocial-spiritual factors modify, to some extent quality of life and possibly, survival in selected patients with advanced cancer. 3) Social connectedness and a faith dimension are two relatively consistent characteristics among some long-term survivors of cancer.
Cronan, T.A., Kaplan, R.M., Posner, L., Lumberg, E., & Kozin, F. (1989). Prevalence of the use of unconventional remedies for arthritis in a metropolitan community. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 32, 1604-1607 (C/S survey of 382 random sample of community-dwelling persons in San Diego County with musculoskeletal complaints (mean age 52, 31% with college degrees, 86% white, 57% with arthritis); frequency of use of prayer in coping with MS pain, and rating of perceived helpfulness of prayer with coping with pain; 84% used unconventional remedies for arthritis; prayer was the most common unconventional method used (44%), then bedrest (33%), nonprescribed exercise or swimming (33%), relaxation (33%), and whirlpool or hot tub treatments (29%); 61% of those using whirlpools or hot tubs reported they were very helpful, whereas 54% of those who used prayer said it was "very helpful" (2nd highest, among a field of 19 unconventional treatments); despite this, prayer barely even mentioned in discussion)
Cronin, C. (1995). Religiosity, religious affiliation, and alcohol and drug use among American college students living in Germany. International Journal of Addictions, 30, 231-238. (216 of 564 students enrolled at the University of Maryland, Munich Campus, volunteered to complete questionnaire (mean age 19.5; 96% U.S.A. citizens); students claiming no religious affiliation differed significantly from both the Protestant and Catholic groups - on hashish, cocaine, and amphetamine use; no association with alcohol consumption, marijuana, LSD, psychedelics, barbituates, quaaludes, or narcotics; importance of religion is inversely related to current alcohol consumption, drug-use index, and high school alcohol consumption; none of analyses were controlled; weak)
Croog, S.H., & Levine, S. (1972). Religious identity and response to serious illness: a report on heart patients. Social Science & Medicine , 6, 17-32. [negative] (examined change in religiousness over time among men recovering from myocardial infarction; prospective cohort study of 324 men without any prior serious illness between ages 30 and 60 suffering first MI (62% Catholic 23% Protestant, and 15% Jewish (Boston & Worcester, Massachusetts); surveyed 1 month (T2) and 12 months (T3) after MI; at 1 month, also asked about religious attitudes/behaviors immediately prior to MI (T1); 73% of Catholics, 48% of Protestants, and 40% of Jews indicated that religions was important or very important at T1 and 79%, 52%, and 42% at T2; at T3, 21% of Catholics and Protestants, and 26% of Jews reported an increase in religiousness, whereas 16%, 11%, and 23% reported a decrease; for church attendance 9%, 11% and 13% had an increase in church attendance, whereas 14%, 29%, and 9% had a decrease; when questioned at T3, 13%, 5% and 2% (9% ave) experienced a change in their religious feelings or views of religion, virtually all in a positive direction; at T2, 11% (12%, 15%, 2%) had seen or planned to see clergy for support (the 2nd largest group sought for support); seeing clergy for support was unrelated to health service utilization; 13% indicated that payment for sins (ranked 15th of 16) was influential in heart attack; concluded that there was little change in religiousness during year after MI, although 9%/year isn't too bad)
Crowne, D., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 4, 349-354.
Cullari, S., Mikus, R. (1990). Correlates of adolescent sexual behavior. Psychological Reports, 1179-1184. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 116 high school students at a Catholic school (50 9th grade and 66 12th grade, 56% girls) and 92 from a public school (52 9th grade and 40 12th grade, 49% girls) in Pennsylvania; scores on Sex Knowledge Inventory were significantly higher for Catholic 12th graders than public school 12 graders, but no difference between 9th graders; Catholic students less likely to have engaged in sexual intercourse than public students (24% vs 48%, p<.01) (although 15 nonrespondents in Catholic school vs 4 nonrespondents in public school); also only 10% of Catholic 9th graders and 33% of Catholic 12 graders were sexually active (vs. 29% of public school 9th graders and 73% of 12th graders; when asked to what extent religious beliefs influenced decisions regarding sexual intercourse, however, 15% of Catholic schools said "none" (20% "a large role) whereas 19% in public schools indicated "none" (23% "a large role"); authors concluded that religious beliefs played a relatively small role in influencing attitudes toward sex; the data, however, says otherwise -- despite having more knowledge about sex, Catholic students were less likely to have sex (although knowledge about sex was unrelated to sexual activity within each school examined separately)
Cutler, S.J. (1976). Membership in different types of voluntary associations and psychological well-being. The Gerontologist, 16, 335-339. (C/S survey of two probability samples of elderly persons; among 16 types of voluntary associations in one analysis (n=438 persons > age 65 in 1974 and 1975 NORC GSS's) and 17 types in another (n=395 >65 in 1972 American National Election Study), membership in church-affiliated groups alone was a significant predictor of life satisfaction and happiness (after other covariates and membership in other types of associations were controlled for); 73% of older adults in the NORC GSS's belonged to one or more voluntary associations, 49% belonged to church-affiliated groups (most common), with the next most common being fraternal groups (18%) and veterans groups (9%))
