Past Research
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E
Eaker, E.D., Pinsky, J., & Castelli, W.P. (1992). Myocardial infarction and coronary death among women: Psychosocial predictors from a 20-year followup of women in the Framingham Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 135, 854-864. (749 women 45-64, 20-yr incidence of MI or coronary death predicted in homemakers (n=353) by tension/anxiety, loneliness during day; for entire sample, tension predicted negative events (p<.05).
Ebaugh, H.R.F., Richman, K., & Chafetz, J.S. (1984). Life crises among the religiously committed: Do sectarian differences matter? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 23, 19-31. (samples of 50 active Christian Scientists, 50 active Catholic Charismatics, and 50 active Bahai's were examined, all living in the Houston metropolitan area; religious group leaders selected persons to compose each of the 50 groups (authors admit that sample subjects represent the more active and fully committed members of their groups); three dimensions of crises were examined: number of crises, type of crises, and reactions to crises; sample subjects cited 1122 crises and 1049 reactions (sample size, authors say); number of crises not different between groups; differences were found between groups in terms of reactions to crises: Christian Scientists less likely to search for support than other groups, and Catholics especially look to group members for affective, emotional support, whereas Bahai seek answers and advice based on interpretation of their sacred writings; Christian Scientists engage in positive thinking and consult group leaders)
Edland, J.F., Duncan, C.E. (1973). Suicide notes in Monroe County: A 23 year look (1950-1972). Journal of Forensic Sciences, 364-369 (case-control study of suicides between 1950 and 1972 in Monroe County (Rochester, NY); 1,418 suicides; suicides among Jews on a population-wide basis were twice that among Catholics and Protestants) (no controls, although surely statistically significant)
Edwards, G., Kyle, E., & Nicholls, P. (1974). Alcoholics admitted to four hospitals in England. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 35, 499-522. (reported percentage of Catholics, but no comparison group; also Catholics more likely from lower social classes, where drinking more prevalent) - other file
Edwards, G., Chandler, J., & Hensman, C. (1972a). Drinking in a London suburb: correlates of normal drinking. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Suppl 6, 69-93. (C/S survey of random sample of 928 adults in a London borough (56% women, 68% married, 59% Church of England, 18% Catholic, 3% Jewish, and 3% none; significant tendency for Catholic men to be moderate and heavy drinkers, compared with Church of England (77% vs 65%, p<.05, uncontrolled); same direction noted for women, but not significant; there were no moderate or heavy drinkers among the 29 Jewish subjects)
Edwards, G., Gattoni, & Hensman, C. (1972). Correlates of alcohol-dependence scores in a prison population. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 33, 417-429. (C/S survey of 188 short-term prisoners consecutively admitted to a London prison in 1965; all were administered a 2-item alcohol dependence scale; heavy drinking higher among 88 Catholic men (35% with a 0 dependence score, compared with 57 of 70 Church of England men, p<.05); no control for social class, though)
Edwards, J.N., & Klemmack, D.L. (1973). Correlates of life satisfaction: a re-examination. Journal of Gerontology, 28, 497-502. (C/S survey of a random/representative sample of 507 persons age 45 or older in a four county area of Virginia (predominantly white Protestants); 10-item Life Satisfaction Index (Adams 1969); 22 correlates were examined, including intensity of involvement in church-related organizations or activities; multiple regression analysis revealed that church-related activities were tied for 3rd as the strongest correlate of LS (behind income and perceived health) (beta .14, p<.05); participation in voluntary organizations, other than church, was unrelated to life satisfaction) (excellent study)
Edwards, W. D., Gabel, W. J., Hosmer, F. E. (1986). On the physical death of Jesus Christ. Journal of the American Medical Association, 255, 1455-1463.
Egan, K.M., Newcomb, P.A., Longnecker, M.P., TrenthamDietz, A., Baron J.A., Trichopoulos, D., Stampfer, M.J., Willett, W.C. (1996). Jewish religion and risk of breast cancer. Lancet, 347 (9016), 1645-1646 (population-based case-control study of 6,611 women with breast CA and 9,026 controls in U.S.; telephone interviews for known and suspected risk factors for breast CA; Jewish women had only slightly raised risk of breat CA (RR 1.10, p=ns); however, RR was much higher for Jewish women with a first degree relative with breast CA (RR 3.78, 95% CI 1.75-8.16, p<.001); this effect of family history was greater than in women of other religions (p for interaction was .05); concluded that certain groups of Jewish women have higher than expected rate of mutation in breast CA gene BRCA1)
Ehman, J, Ott B, Short, T, Ciampa R, Hansen-Flaschen, J (1999). Do patients want physicians to inquire about their spiritual or religious beliefs if they become gravely ill? Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 1803-1806. Surveyed 177 consecutive adult outpatients visiting the pulmonary clinic at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, asking how patients felt about physicians addressing spiritual or religious issues. Overall, 66% of respondents agreed that a physician inquiry about spiritual or religious beliefs would strengthen their trust in the physician, whereas 17% disagreed. Nearly half of patients (45%) indicated that religious beliefs would influence their medical decisions if they became gravely ill. Of those patients, 94% agreed that physicians should ask patients about their religious beliefs in that setting (even 45% of respondents who denied such beliefs thought that physician should ask patients about them). Only 15% of subjects, however, recalled having been asked about spiritual or religious beliefs that might impact their medical decisions.
Einhorn, S. (1999). Spiritual needs of severely ill patients are neglected in health care. Lakartidningen, 96, 2362-2366. (Discussion that emphasizes the need to address the spiritual needs of patients with advanced disease; the investigator is located at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden (stefan.einhorn@onkpat.ki.s)
Eisenberg, D.M., Kessler, R.C., Foster, C., Norlock, F.E., Calkins, D.R., & Delbanco, T.L. (1993). Unconventional medicine in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine, 328, 246-252. (examines use of unconventional therapies (UT) for health problems in U.S., based on a C/S telephone survey of national sample of 1539 adults (67% response); examined 16 commonly used health interventions; 34% of sample used at least one UT in past year, with one-third of these seeking providers of UT (median 19 visits/year at $27.60/visit); highest use reported by Whites ages 25-49 years with more education and higher incomes; 83% used both UT and sought treatment from medical doctor, although 72% did not inform their MD they were using UT; estimates that 425 million visits to UT therapist in 1990, amounting to $13.7 billion, 10.3 billion paid out of pocket; 25% of participants used prayer as an unconventional therapy, second only to exercise (26%))
Eisenberg DM. Davis RB. Ettner SL. Appel S. Wilkey S. Van Rompay M. Kessler RC. Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990-1997: results of a follow-up national survey. JAMA. 280(18):1569-75, 1998. (Context: A prior national survey documented the high prevalence and costs of alternative medicine use in the United States in 1990. Objective: To document trends in alternative medicine use in the United States between 1990 and 1997. Design: Nationally representative random household telephone surveys using comparable key questions were conducted in 1991 and 1997 measuring utilization in 1990 and 1997, respectively. Participants: A total of 1539 adults in 1991 and 2055 in 1997. Main Outcomes Measures.Prevalence, estimated costs, and disclosure of alternative therapies to physicians. Results: Use of at least 1 of 16 alternative therapies during the previous year increased from 33.8% in 1990 to 42.1% in 1997 (P or= to.001). The therapies increasing the most included herbal medicine, massage, megavitamins, self-help groups, folk remedies, energy healing, and homeopathy. The probability of users visiting an alternative medicine practitioner increased from 36.3% to 46.3% (P=.002). In both surveys alternative therapies were used most frequently for chronic conditions, including back problems, anxiety, depression, and headaches. There was no significant change in disclosure rates between the 2 survey years; 39.8% of alternative therapies were disclosed to physicians in 1990 vs 38.5% in 1997. The percentage of users paying entirely out-of-pocket for services provided by alternative medicine practitioners did not change significantly between 1990 (64.0%) and 1997 (58.3%) (P=.36). Extrapolations to the US population suggest a 47.3% increase in total visits to alternative medicine practitioners, from 427 million in 1990 to 629 million in 1997, thereby exceeding total visits to all US primary care physicians. An estimated 15 million adults in 1997 took prescription medications concurrently with herbal remedies and/or high-dose vitamins (18.4% of all prescription users). Estimated expenditures for alternative medicine professional services increased 45.2% between 1990 and 1997 and were conservatively estimated at $21.2 billion in 1997, with at least $12.2 billion paid out-of-pocket. This exceeds the 1997 out-of-pocket expenditures for all US hospitalizations. Total 1997 out-of-pocket expenditures relating to alternative therapies were conservatively estimated at $27.0 billion, which is comparable with the projected 1997 out-of-pocket expenditures for all US physician services. Conclusions: Alternative medicine use and expenditures increased substantially between 1990 and 1997, attributable primarily to an increase in the proportion of the population seeking alternative therapies, rather than increased visits per patient.
Elifson, K.W., Petersen, D.M., & Hadaway, C.K. (1983). Religiosity and delinquency. Criminology, 21, 505-527. (C/S survey of 600 adolescents grades 9-12 in 21 public high schools near Atlanta, Georgia, found a moderately strong inverse association between religious salience, belief in the power of personal prayer, and orthodoxy, and a measure of delinquency; when friends who smoked marijuana, parent's attitudes toward friends, closeness to mother, and obeying all parent's rules, were controlled for, however, the association with delinquency weakened to non-significance; the authors concluded (I think in error) that religiosity was unimportant as a predictor of delinquency, rather than recognizing that they were perhaps explaining the mechanism of effect.)
Elkins, D, Anchor, K.N., & Sandler, H.M. (1979). Relaxation training and prayer behavior as tension reduction techniques. Behavioral Engineering, 5, 81-87. (randomized clinical trial; 42 members of a Baptist church in Tennessee (mean age 34); 10 days of deep muscle relaxation training, vs. 10 days of training in prayer, vs. no treatment control; outcome was measurement of muscle tension in the frontalis muscle group, and state anxiety with STAI; relaxation group had significantly great muscle tension and trait anxiety reduction over time than the prayer group or the control group (no difference on muscle relaxation or anxiety between prayer and control)
Elkins, D.N., Hedstrom, L.J., Hughes, L.L., Leaf, J.A., Saunders, C. (1988). Toward a humanistic-phenomenological spirituality. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 28(4), 5-18. The authors offer a multi-component definition of spirituality that differentiates it from religion. This leads to the development of a survey instrument that measures an individual's intrinsic or phenomenological experience of spirituality. The 9 components are: a transcendent dimension, meaning and purpose in life, mission or vocation in life, sacredness of life, material values, altruism, idealism, awareness of the tragic, receiving the fruits of spirituality. The resulting instrument, the Spiritual Orientation Inventory, is an 85-item questionnaire that uses a Likert-type scale of 1 (unacceptable) to 5 (excellent). The authors note that alpha ranged from .75 to .95 on the nine sub-scales of the instrument.
Ell, K.O., Mantell, J.E., Hamovitch, M.B., & Nishimoto, R.H. (1989). Social support, sense of control, and coping among patients with breast, lung, or colorectal cancer. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 7, 63-89. (C/S survey of 369 patients age 35 or older newly diagnosed with breast (55%), colorectal (25%), or lung cancer (19%) at 23 hospitals affiliated with the Cancer Management Network of the University of Southern California's Comprehensive Cancer Center (patients with psychiatric or CNS disorder were excluded); sample represented 34% of eligible patients (sample was more likely to be female, white, and younger than non-responders); one-half Protestant, one-third Catholic, 5% Jewish, three-quarters completed high school, 79% white, 10% Hispanic, and 8% Black, 77% female; social support measured by 52-item Interview Schedule for Social Interaction (availability of attachment (availability and adequacy of ongoing close interpersonal relationships) and availability of social integration (relationships with acquaintances and less intimate friends and relatives); mental health status by Ware et al (1979) 38-item Mental Health Inventory (MHI) (subscales on psychological distress, psychological well-being, social functioning, and role limitations); cognitive restructuring measured by 4-item scale; sense of control measured by 5-item sense of mastery or ability to solve problems scale; religious coping measured by 4-item "active reliance on religion" measure; religious coping was significantly related to MHI (.13, p<.01), in particular the subscale of psychological well-being (.19, p<.001, uncontrolled); religious coping also related to both social attachment (.13, p<.01 and social integration (.21, p<.001, uncontrolled); did not examine religion in multivariate models, since focus was on social support and control)
Ellis, A. (1948). The value of marriage prediction tests. American Sociological Review, 13, 710-718. (conventional or conservative people (attend church regularly, are married in church, attend Sunday school) are quite likely, consciously or unconsciously, to lie more than unconventional and nonreligious people to questions like "Are you happily married?" individuals who are ashamed to admit that there is anything wrong with their marriage receive consistently different questionnaire scores than individuals who are not ashamed to make such admissions) (review and opinion; quotes some studies, but does not show data)
Ellis, A. (1980). Psychotherapy and atheistic values: A response to A.E. Bergin's "Psychotherapy and religious values." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 635-639. (describes views of "probabilistic atheists" and "clinical humanistic-atheistic" values, in contrast to "clinical-humanistic" and "theistic" values described by Bergin)
Ellis, A. (1983). The Case Against Religiosity. New York: Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy. (don't have it)
Ellis, A. (1987). Religiosity and emotional disturbance: A reply to Sharkey and Malony. Psychotherapy, 24, 826-827. (Ellis' response to Sharkey & Malony (1986) article that examined 95 clients at Ellis' Institute for Rational Emotive Therapy; he retracts his previous statement about "Religion" and revises it to "Religiosity"; excellent)
Ellis, A. (1988). Is religiosity pathological? Free Inquiry, 18, 27-32. Presents argument that devout belief dogmatism and religiosity "distinctly contribute to and in some ways are equal to, mental or emotional disturbance". Address 2 forms of devout religion or religiosity: 1) Devout or orthodox belief in some kind of supernatural religion (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), 2) Devout or rigid belief in some kind of secular ideology (Marxism, Nazism, etc.), then lists his 11 criteria for what is mentally healthy (self-interest, self-direction, social interest, tolerance, acceptance of ambiguity and uncertainty, flexibility, scientific thinking, commitment, risk-tasking, self-acceptance, and acceptance of reality) and goes on to say why religiosity promotes the opposite. This overall hypothesis is the more scientific open-minded and straight thinking about themselves, others and the world people are the less neurotic they will feel and be.
Ellis, A. (2000). Can rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) be effectively used with people who have devout believes in God and religion? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31, 29-33
Ellis, J.B., & Smith, P.C. (1991). Spiritual well-being, social desirability and reasons for living: Is there a connection? International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 37, 57-63. (CS survey of psychology classes at a southern university; 100 college students (73% women, mean age 24, 83% white); completed Spiritual Well-Being Scale, Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL), and Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale; found a positive correlation between religious well-being and total RFL score (r=0.19, p<.05); also, MCSD (social desirability) positively related to SWBS at r=0.29, p<.005, and existential well-being at r=0.32, p=.001, but was not related to religious well-being; religious well-being also strongly related to moral objections subscale of RFL scale (0.56=r, p<.001), existential well-being was unrelated to moral subscale) (none of correlations were controlled)
Ellis, L. (1985). Religiosity and criminality: Evidence and explanations of complex relationships. Sociological Perspectives, 28, 501-520. (great review) (religious communities have moral and ethical teachings that discourage many forms of deviant or illegal conduct, with most studies showing less crime and juvenile delinquency among more religious subjects) (26 of 31 studies showed a significant inverse relationship between CA and criminality)
Ellis, M. R., Vinson, D.C., Ewigman, B. (1999). Addressing spiritual concern of patients: family physicians' attitudes and practices. Journal of Family Practice, 48, 105-109. (Study of 231 family physicians in Missouri (80 residents, 43 faculty, and 108 community physicians), of whom 170 responded; Spiritual Well-being Scale (Paloutzian and Ellison) was administered. 96% agreed or strongly agreed that spiritual well-being is an important component of good health; 86% indicated that in patients with spiritual questions should be referred to a chaplain, whereas 58% indicated that physicians should address spiritual concerns of patients (only 5% of physicians disagreed or strongly disagreed with physicians doing so); less than 20% of physicians discussed seven spiritual topics (besides death and dying) in more than 10% of patient encounters; 22% reported frequent referral to chaplains (more than 10% of encounters) and 22% reported frequent referral of patients (more than 10% of encounters) to their pastor, priest, Rabbi or other spiritual leader). The most common bear years to discussing spiritual concerns were (1) lack of time (71%), lack of experience or training in taking a spiritual history (59%), uncertainty about how to identify patients who desire a discussion of spiritual issues (56%), concern that I will project my own beliefs on patients (53%), and uncertainty about how to manage spiritual issues raised by patients (49%). Note that 41% of this sample were family practice residents in training.
Ellison, C.G., Gay, D.A., & Glass, T.A. (1989). Does religious commitment contribute to individual life satisfaction? Social Forces, 68, 100-123. (C/S national random sample using 1983 NORC GSS data (n=several thousand, but N not given); life satisfaction assessed by four domain-specific measures of life satisfaction (each domain with one item finances, health, family, friends) (range 4-24); religious commitment assessed by (1) type of affiliation, (2) strength of affiliation, (3) frequency of attendance on 1-9 scale and membership in church-related organizations, and (4) devotional intensity index (frequency of prayer and closeness to God); sociability assessed by intensity of sociability and social affiliation (quality and quantity of secular voluntary association and social interaction); regression model results indicated that Baptist religious affiliation (.11 for Southern and .08 for Other, both p<.05), frequency of attendance (.08, p<.05), and devotional intensity (.12, p<.01) were all independently related to life satisfaction; in the final model, devotional intensity was the third strongest correlate, behind marital status (.14) and income (.13); also shows significant relationship with life satisfaction for religious attendance even after secular sociability is controlled (.06, p<.05, was beta for that variable)
Ellison, C.G., & Gay, D.A. (1990). Region, religious commitment, and life satisfaction among black Americans. The Sociological Quarterly, 31, 123-147. (C/S survey of 2,107 adults using National Survey of Black Americans 1979-80 by Survey Research Center at U of Mich; well-being measured by a single 4-level global life satisfaction item; after controlling for other variables using regression techniques, found that church attendance (single item 1-5) significantly associated with LS (beta .05, p<.05), even after denominational affiliation and self-rated religiosity (and social factors, demographics) controlled; religious affiliation significantly related to life satisfaction (Fundamentalist, in particular, .22, p<.01); prayer (single item 1-4) and self-rated religiosity (single item 1-4) not related to LS after controlling for attendance and affiliation)
Ellison, C.G. (1991). Religious involvement and subjective well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 80-99. (C/S survey of national probability sample NORC GSS (1988); 997 subjects who were asked about life satisfaction and traumatic events; sample composed of 28% conservative Protestants, 16% moderate Protestants; 8% liberal Protestants, 26% Catholic, 3% Mormons/Jehovah Witnesses, 6% non-Christians, and 9% no religious preference; besides affiliation, also measured church attendance, two-items assessing divine interaction (closeness to God and frequency of prayer), and existential certainty (3-item scale measuring doubts about faith because of evil, conflicts with science, feeling that life has no meaning - designed to "tap the strength and durability of religious faith without reference to specific articles of religious doctrine"); subjective well-being was satisfaction with community life, non-working activities/hobbies, family life, friendships, and health/physical condition, and personal happiness (3-item scale); life satisfaction and personal happiness associated with church attendance (.14 and .19), divine interaction (.09 and .12), and existential certainty (.18 and .17); multiple regression analysis revealed that religious variables accounted for 5-7% of variance in life-satisfaction scores, with significant relationships between existential certainty (p<.001), non-denominational Protestant (p<.001), Mormon or Jehovah Witness (p<.05), liberal Protestant (p<.05), and divine interaction (p<.05) (but not church attendance); personal happiness related to existential certainty (p<.01) and negatively related to being Catholic (p<.05), with religious variables accounting for 2-3% of variance of personal happiness)
Ellison, C.G. (1992). Are religious people nice people? Evidence from the National Survey of Black Americans. Social Forces, 71, 411-430. (C/S survey of a probability national sample of 2,107 Black adults (1979-80); used regression analyses to control for factors such as age, education, sex, income, missing income, government aid, skin tone, physical unattractiveness, and self-esteem; outcome was interpersonal friendliness and cooperation determined by post-hoc ratings by NSBA interviewers; found that persons who engaged in frequent devotional activities (prayer, Bible study, etc.) were more open and less suspicious, and more enjoyable to interview; those who reported that religion was an important source of moral guidance were also viewed as friendlier, more interested, and more open than those for whom religion was less important); no association found for religious attendance; thus, personal religiousness associated with interpersonal friendliness and empathy) (excellent study)
Ellison, C.G. (1993). Religious involvement and self-perception among Black Americans. Social Forces, 71, 1027-1055. (1933 Black Americans surveyed as part of National Survey of Black Americans (1979-80); measures of public (two-item index of attendance and church-related activities) and private religiousness (3-item index of prayer, devotional reading, TV/radio); measures of self-esteem (6-item) and personal mastery (4-item); public (beta .07, p<.01) and private (beta .08, p<.001) religious measures related to greater self-esteem, and interactions indicate that devotional religious activity buffers the effects of chronic illness on self-esteem (p<.001), whereas public religiousness buffers effects of unattractiveness on self esteem (p<.01); religious variables unrelated to feelings of personal mastery)
Ellison, C.G., & George, L.K. (1994a). Religious involvement, social ties, and social support in a southeastern community. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33, 46-61. (C/S survey of a probability sample of 2,956 persons involved in Wave II of the NC Piedmont site of the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) survey (54% female, 36% Black, mean age 43); religious variable was church attendance; outcomes were non-kin ties, frequency of in-person contacts, frequency of telephone contacts, a 13-item instrumental scale of received social support, and a scale of perceived quality of social relationships; using regression techniques, CA was significantly related to non-kin ties, inperson contacts, and telephone calls (p<.001), as well as received instrumental support (p<.01); finally, there was a significant relationship between CA and quality of social support at p<.001, which was reduced to p<.01 after controlling for other measures of social support)
Ellison, C.G. (1994c). Religious involvement and subjective quality of family life among African Americans. In R.J. Taylor, J.S. Jackson, & L. M. Chatters (eds), Family Life in Black America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage (examines family closeness, family role performance, and family satisfaction among a probability sample of 1,975 Black Americans as part of NSBA (National Survey of Black Americans); found that church participation and indications that religious socialization "very important" were significantly related to greater positive family role performance, greater sense of family closeness, and higher family satisfaction (p<.01-p<.001))
Ellison, C.G. (1994b). Religion, the life stress paradigm, and the study of depression. In J.S. Levin (ed.), Religion in Aging and Health: Theoretical Foundations and Methodological Frontiers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp 78-121. (religious types of social support may provide something more than secular types; social support is more likely to be effective if both provider and recipient share similar values and common beliefs about (1) proper motivations for helping, (2) "fit" between stressors and supportive behaviors, (3) other key issues (see Jacobson 1987); involvement in religious community, then, may increase both the quantity and the quality of social resources)
Ellison, C.G. (1995). Race, religious involvement, and depressive symptomatology in a southeastern US community. Social Science and Medicine 40, 1561-1572 (C/S survey of random sample of 2956 adults in NC as part of NIMH ECA survey (55% women, 43 yo mean, 53% urban); depressive symptoms assessed by DIS, focusing on symptoms not explained by physical illness, injury, or drug use; Blacks reported higher levels of depressive symptoms, more SLE's, and lower subjective social support than whites; church attendance inversely related to depressive symptoms in whites (-.04, p<.01, in large regression model); Blacks who were not religiously affiliated had significantly higher depressive symptoms (.58, p<.001); among blacks and whites, devotional activities (prayer/Bible study) was positively associated with depressive symptoms) (.05, p<.001); thus, lack of religious affiliation associated with more depression in Blacks, but lack of church attendance with more depression in Whites)
Ellison, C.G., & Taylor, R.J. (1996a). Turning to prayer: social and situational antecedents of religious coping among African Americans. Review of Religious Research, 38, 111-131. (C/S survey of probability sample of 1344 participants (of 2107) in National Survey of Black Americans who had ever encountered a major life crisis that cause them great mental distress or a personal problem that was too great for them to handle alone; when asked about their responses to the stressor, looked at "Did you pray or get someone to pray for you?"; results indicated that approximately 80% turned to prayer as a coping resource; this practice was most likely among persons dealing with health problems or bereavement, persons with low general personal mastery, and women (multiple covariates controlled)
Ellison, C.G. (1996). Conservative Protestantism and the parental use of corporal punishment. Social Forces, 75, 1003-1028. (C/S survey of 13,017 men and women ages 19 or older (National Survey of Families and Households); Protestants with more conservative scriptural beliefs are more likely to use corporal punishment than persons from with less conservative theological views (conservative Protestant affiliation initially .40, p<.001, but then reduced to .28, p<.10, when theological conservatism is controlled (.19, p<.001); this survey does not include information on type or intensity of corporal punishment) (family issues)
Ellison, C.G. (1996). Conservative Protestantism and the corporal punishment of children: Clarifying the issues. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 35, 1-16. (balanced, sensitive, articulate review of the research on this topic; demonstrates minimal support for the notion and mild to moderate corporal punishment -- particularly for young children -- results in any particular harm) (family issues)
Ellison, C.G., Bartkowski, J.P., & Anderson, K.L. (1999). Are there religious variations in domestic violence? Journal of Family Issues , 20, 87-113. (C/S survey of 2,242 men and 2420 women ages 19 or older (National Survey of Families and Households); denominational monogamy is unrelated to domestic violence in men; men who hold much more conservative theological views than their partners, appear to be at slightly increased risk of domestic violence (p<.05); women are less likely to perpetrate domestic violence if attending religious services one or more times per month and if both spouses are either Conservative Protestant or Both Catholic)
Ellison, C.G., Burr, J.A., & McCall, P.L. (1997a). Religious homogeneity and metropolitan suicide rates. Social Forces, 76, 273-299. (examined relationship between religious homogeneity -- extent to which community residents adhere to a single religion or small number of faiths -- on suicide rate; unit of analysis was standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSAs); these are theoretically consistent units in terms of sociological and economic integration, capture a wide range of social and economic factors that may impact the lives of residents, and are not as subject to aggregation bias as states or nations; 296 metropolitan areas across U.S. were used for this analysis; found a significant negative effect for religious homogeneity on suicide rates that was present for the nation as a whole (more than church membership or % Catholic), strongest in the Northeast, present but weaker in the South and Midwest, and an aggravating effect on suicide rates in the West (perhaps due to the high level of residential mobility here, especially intracommunity mobility, indicating that relationships and interactions take place among strangers, reducing the religious effects in more religiously homogeneous groups); multiple control variables used, including family and social integration, income, and stability of social bonds)
Ellison, C.G., Levin, J.S., & Taylor, R.J. (1997b). Religious involvement and psychological distress in a national panel study of African Americans. Paper presented at the joint meetings of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion and the Religious Research Association, San Diego (Nov 7-9). (don't have) (prospective cohort study of African Americans which found that those who attend religious services more than once per week, and those who report receiving a great deal of guidance from religion in their daily lives, experience reduced psychological distress over the course of a 3-year follow-up period; findings persist after controlling for physical health status, social ties, stressors, and other relevant covariates) (excellent study)
Ellison, C.G., & Levin, J.S. (1998). The religion-health connection: Evidence, theory, and future directions. Health Education and Behavior, in press. (excellent job of describing why involvement in religious community and religious types of social support are helpful in enhancing well-being, self-esteem, and identity)
Emavardhana, T., and Tori, C.D. (1997). Changes in Self-Concept, Ego Defense Mechanisms, and Religiosity Following Seven-Day Vipassana Meditation Retreats. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36(2):194-206. Unique experimental study examining the effects of a Vipassana (Buddhist) meditation retreat on various psychological outcomes, compared with a control group. Two samples of Thai students, from Bangkok, (N1=222, 66% F, mean age 18.3, 62% college students; N2=216, 59% F, mean age 17.8, 59% college students), vast majority of whom had not been exposed to these meditative techniques, went to separate weeklong retreats with extensive silent meditation focused on quiet observation of thoughts and the "transitoriness of the self," and with some small-group discussions, sermons, and chants. Control subjects with similar characteristics also sampled (N=281). All samples given pre- and post-tests of 100-item Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, a Life Style Index, and a Buddhist Beliefs & Practices scale (authors' creation). Participants showed increases in self-esteem, self-worth, benevolence, & self-acceptance. Ego defense mechanisms of displacement, projection, and regression decreased, and subjects reported less reactivity to external stimuli and sexual cues (all ps.005, using ANOVA methods). As authors note, long-term effects were not measured in their study.
Emblen, J.D., & Halstead, L. (1993). Spiritual needs and interventions: Comparing the views of patients, nurses, and chaplains. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 7 (4), 175-182. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 19 surgical patients (6 Catholic, 11 Protestant), 12 nurses (half Catholic), and 7 chaplains (4 Protestant, 2 Catholic, 1 Jewish) to identify the specific interventions they thought nurses and chaplains should use to meet spiritual needs (Illinois); asked "How do you think a nurse might provide for spiritual comfort?" and "How do you think a chaplain might provide spiritual care?"; patients emphasized religious interventions by nurses such as prayer and scripture reading; for chaplains, they said prayer, scripture, and close to God; nurses indicated that the nurses should pray, give chapel service, and determined by patient's belief; nurses said chaplains should pray, provide religious literature, other sacraments, advertise services, and provide staff worship; chaplains said nurses should pray, read scripture, be sensitive to spiritual needs; chaplains said chaplains should pray, read scripture, give sacraments, and use religious tradition because spiritual needs are heightened in acute illness) (qualitative)
Emmons, R.A., & Dank, M. (1997). Spirituality through personal strivings: Psychological well-being and ultimate concerns. Manuscript under review. (C/S survey of 115 undergraduates in health psychology at UC Davis, and 100 married couples living in Davis, California; spiritual content in personal goals (spiritual strivings) is a positive predictor of well-being in both students and married couples)
Encel, S., Kotowicz, K.C., & Resler, H.E. (1972). Drinking patterns in Sydney, Australia. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Supple 6, 1-27. (C/S survey of a random sample of 820 persons aged 15 or older living in Sydney, Australia (48% of 373 men and 15% of 447 women were heavy drinkers); religious affiliation appears to be a restraining influence for drinking among women, but not men; Methodist women had a drinking distribution skewed toward the lower end, while four of eight women with no religious affiliation were heavy drinkers (no controls and no statistical correlation)
Eng, E., Hatch, J., & Callan, A. (1985). Institutionalizing social support through the church and into the community. Health Education Quarterly, 12, 81-92. (describes church-based interventions to disseminate a wide range of health information and services; provides a conceptual framework for institutionalizing health related activities through the role and function of the black church in rural NC)
Engle, G. L. (1968). The life setting conducive to illness: the giving-up--given-up complex. Annals of Internal Medicine, 69,293-300.
Engel, G.L. (1971). Sudden and rapid death during psychological stress: Folklore or folk wisdom? Annals of Internal Medicine, 74, 771-782. 170 examples (99 Male and 64 Female; 7 with no gender specified) of sudden death collected from daily newspapers mainly in Rochester, NY. Only reports with clear reference to a precipitating life situation were used. Most deaths occurred within an hour of reported event. 70 of the men were 61 years while over 50% (33/64) of the women were > 61 yrs. 8 settings were established with the following totals 1) On the impact of the collapse or death of a close person (T: 36 M:11 F:25). 2) During period of acute death - within 16 days (T:35 M:20 F:15) . 3) Threat of loss of close person (T:16 M:10 F:6). 4) During mourning or anniversary (T:5 M:4 F:1). 5) Loss of status or self-esteem (T: 10 M:9 F:0 NS:1). 6) Personal danger or threat of injury, real or symbolic (T;46 M:27 W:14 NS:5). 7) After danger is over (T:12 M:10 W:1 NS: 1). 8) Reunion, triumph or "happy ending" (T: 10 M:8 W:2). Says most deaths were due to cardiac arrest either by ventricular systole or ventricular tachyarrhythmia.
Engs, R.C. (1980). The drug-use patterns of helping-profession students in Brisbane, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 6, 231-246. (self-assessed religiosity and cigarette smoking)
Engs, R.C. (1982). Drinking patterns and attitudes toward alcoholism of Australian human-service students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 43, 517-531. (C/S survey of 1449 students in medicine, law, pharmacy, social work, applied psychology, police science, religion and nursing in Australia; heavy drinkers were more likely to be Roman Catholics; persons who considered religion not to be important drank significantly more alcohol per day (18.1 g) than those who considered religion to be important (11.9 g) (p<.001); law students consumed the most (25.9 g/day) and seminarians the least (5.6 g/day, p<.001); concluded that seminary students and those who consider religion very important, drink less and have more negative attitudes toward alcohol use, compared to students in other human-service professions)
Engs RC, Hanson DJ, Gliksman L, Smythe L (1990). Influence of religion and culture on drinking behaviours: a test of hypothesis between Canada and the USA. British Journal of Addiction, 85, 1475-1482. Sample was 4911 Canadian college students representing different geographic regions of Ontario in 1987 - 1988 and 1687 US college students from 15 universities in North Central US. Measured consumption and problems associated with drinking and religious affiliation (Catholic, Protestant and allowed to drink; Protestant and forbidden to drink; and Jewish). After removing abstainers and those who could not be classified in 4 affiliation categories, the sample was 3719 Canadians and 1428 Americans. Americans drank more (F=19.3, p<.001) and Catholics and Protestants allowed to drink, drank more (F=5.85, p<.001). There was significant country cross affiliation interaction as well (F=2.90, p<.05). Americans had significant more alcohol-related problems (F=190.98, p<.001) and Catholics and Protestants allowed to drink had more problems (F=8.00, p<.001). Americans experienced more alcohol problems than Canadians regardless of religion and American Jews even experienced as many problems as American Catholics and American Protestants allowed to drink. When 17 problems investigated, more American Catholics than Canadian Catholics experienced problems in 10 of the areas, more American drinking Protestants experienced problems in 10 of the areas than Canadians, more American non-drinking Protestants had problems in 3 of the areas than Canadians and American Jews in 7 areas. Only problem that Canadian endorsed more than American is "cutting class after having a few drinks".
Enstrom, J.E. (1975). Cancer mortality among Mormons. Cancer, 36, 825-841. (case-control study to compare cancer mortality among Mormons in California in 1970-72 (n=4865 deaths among 360,000 California Mormons total); mortality rate among California Mormons was only about one-half to three-quarters that of the general California population for most sites (especially esophagus, stomach, colon, rectum, pancreas, lung, prostate, bladder, and kidney for men, and colon, lung, breast, and entire uterus for women -- including some sites that are not smoking related); also examined independent data on 111 Mormons from 6,928 participants in Alameda County Study (which has rates of church attendance) found that over 6.5 year follow-up, only 3.6% of Mormons died, compared with 6.5% of others (45% lower mortality rate); a more general conclusion is that the risk of cancer is reduced for members of religious groups characterized by doctrinal orthodoxy and behavioral conformity; in particular, frequency of church attendance and general commitment are important predictors of cancer mortality among those affiliated with a religious group)
Enstrom, J.E. (1978). Cancer and total mortality among active Mormons. Cancer, 42, 1943-1951. (case-control; male cases taken from Mormon membership and death records of Salt Lake City, Utah, (n=55,000 active) and California (n=15,500 active) (1968-1975); compared with controls which were (a) Calif, Utah, and U.S. male population, (b) Am Cancer Soc (ACS) group of men who had never smoked, and (c) National Center for Health Stats (NCHS) group of white males never smoked; "active" defined as members of high priest or seventies level of lay priesthood; age-specific total death rates for Mormons in Calif and Utah were 9.4/1000 and 10.1/1000, which were lower than Ca/Ut/US males (18.4/1000, 17.2/1000, 19.4/1000) and ACS and NCHS males who never smoked (11.7/1000 and 15.1/1000); this translates to ratios of age-adjusted death rates for religious active Mormon males (California and Utah) of 38% for ages 35-64 and 50% for ages 35 or above (life expectancy for Mormon men age 35 is 7 years longer than for U.S. white males); cancer specific death rates were also significantly lower than control populations, including both smoking-related sites and sites unrelated to cancer; Mormon males had a life expectancy greater than for white males in the general population even when specific health-related behaviors were controlled -- suggesting that other factors may be important in extending longevity (such as social networks, marital status, group membership, etc.) (good study)
Enstrom, J.E. (1980). Cancer mortality among Mormons in California during 1968-75. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 65, 1073-1082. (case-control study; based on church records, detailed cancer and total death rates between 1968 and 1975 were determined for 360,000 California Mormons, 700,000 Utah Mormons, and a subgroup of active Mormon males known as High Priests and Seventies (15,500 "active" males in California and 55,000 "active" males in Utah) who were age 35 or over; SMR for cancer was 68% for California Mormon males, 83% for California Mormon females, and 50% for active California and Utah Mormon males compared with U.S. white males; low rates of cancer not entirely explained by their lack of smoking, since SMR's were also lower for non-smoking-related cancer sites) (duplicate publication as 1978 ?)
Enstrom, J.E. (1989). Health practices and cancer mortality among active California Mormons. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 31, 1807-1814. A prospective cohort study of 9,844 religiously active Mormons (high priests (5,231) and wives (4,613)) in California were compared with a control population of 3,119 adults in Alameda County. This study examines the effects of religious behavior practices on disease-specific mortality rates. Mormons have lower occurrences of cancer and cardiovascular diseases and lower mortality rates than controls. For high priests in this cohort: standard mortality ratios (SMR) were 47 compared to 100 for controls for all causes. SMRs for high priests were 47 for all cancers, 15 for smoking-related cancers, 71 for non-smoking cancers, and 52 for all cardiovascular diseases. For wives, all-cause SMR was 66, 72 for all cancers, 41 for smoking-related cancers, 82 for non-smoking cancers, and 64 for cardiovascular disease. Among the controls in Alameda County, white nonsmokers, regardless of religious affiliation who attended church weekly and engaged in 3-health-related lifestyle practices (not smoking, physical exercise, sleeping regularly), had all-cause SMR of 38 (vs. 39 for Mormons engaging in 3 health behaviors) and an SMR of 13 for all cancers (vs. 51 for Mormons), and 49 for cardiovascular deaths (vs. 37 for Mormons). This subgroup represents those among the controls whose behaviors most closely resemble the behaviors of the Mormons studied.
Epperly, J. (1983). The cell and the celestial: Spiritual needs of cancer patients. Journal of the Medical Asocciation of Georgia, 72, 374-376. (qualitative opinion piece that argues that terminaly ill individuals are better able to cope with illness if they hold spiritual beliefs)
Epstein, F.H., & Boas, E.P. (1955). The prevalence of manifest atherosclerosis among randomly chosen Italian and Jewish garment workers: A preliminary report. Journal of Gerontology, 10, 331-337. (C/S random sample of 506 men and 398 women age 40 or over (91% response rate) who were members of a Garment Worker's Union in New York; 36% men and 51% of women were Italian, and 54% of men and 35% of women were Jewish; diagnosis of coronary artery disease based on clinical symptoms and electro-cardiographic changes; diagnosis of obliterative disease of the leg arteries made based on leg pulses and oscillometric readings; diagnosis of cerebral artery disease based on clinical history and neurological deficits; aortic calcification identified by abdominal X-rays; and hypertension diagnosed based on BP readings; serum blood sugar and cholesterol were also assessed; results indicated that the overall prevalence of atherosclerosis was higher among Jews in both men and women and in most age groups than in Italians, although the difference tends to diminish with age; this is especially true for coronary artery disease, where after age 50, Jewish men show consistently higher prevalence rates than Italians; the overall prevalence for Jews is 17%, compared with 7% for Italians (p<.01); this is despite no differences in the intake of calories or fat)
Epstein, F.H., Carol, R., & Simpson, R. (1956). Estimation of caloric intake from dietary histories among population groups. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 4 (1), 1-10. (C/S survey; modified 24-hour diet histories taken on a random sample of garment factory workers in NY (250 men and 166 women); Jewish men (n=153) and women (n=85) both have lower calorie intake (2188 and 1782) than Italian men (n=68) and women (n=52) (2312 and 1962)
Epstein, F.H., Simpson, R., Boas, E.P. (1956). Relations between diet and atherosclerosis among a working population of different ethnic origins. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 4 (1), 10-19. (C/S survey of sample consisting of 250 men and 165 women garment factory workers in NY; Jewish men (n=153) and women (n=85) get a larger proportion of their total fat intake from animals sources than do Italians men and women (80% vs 68% and 78% vs 63%, p<.01); Jews had higher prevalence of hypercholesterolemia and higher coronary artery disease than Italians, although took in equal amounts of fat (though dissimilar amounts of animal fat)
Epstein, F.H., Arbor, A., Simpson, R., & Boas, E.P. (1957). The epidemiology of atherosclerosis among a random sample of clothing workers or different ethnic origins in New York City. Journal of Chronic Disease, 5, 300-341. (C/S survey of garment workers in New York; 683 men and 592 women aged 40 or over was drawn at random, plus 183 male and 272 female family members were also examined; Jewish males had twice the rates of CAD as Italians, but no difference for females; Jewish men and women had higher serum cholesterol levels than Italians (209 vs 237 and 226 vs 249), but serum phospholipid levels were similar; there was no difference in BP's or in prevalence of diabetes mellitus); in Part II of the article, concluded that overall prevalence of CAD among Italian men was related to serum cholesterol, BP, and body weight; by contrast, among Jewish men, these variables exerted no appreciable effect upon the prevalence of disease)
Epstein, L., Tamir, A., & Natan, T. (1985). Emotional health state of adolescents. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 1, 14-22. (C/S survey of 234 high school students age 18 in Israel (53% women, 22% religiously observant; 19-item survey from Cornell Medical Index measured emotional health; emotional health was unrelated to whether subjects were religiously observant or secular)
Erikson, E. H. (1978). Adulthood. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.
Erin, J.N., Rudin, D., & Njoroge, M. (1991). Religious beliefs of parents of children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 85, 157-162.
Esau, T.G., & Cox, R.H. (1969). The mental health of ministers' wives and families. International Psychiatry Clinics, 5, 201-210 (qualitative, based on authors' clinical experience) (Q)
Esterling, B.A., Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Bodnar, J.C., & Glaser, R. (1994). Chronic stress, social support, and persistent alterations in the natural killer cell response to cytokines in older adults. Health Psychology, 13, 291-298. (14 continuing or current family caregivers of Alzheimer's patients, 17 former AD caregivers, and 31 control subjects compared; both current and former AD caregivers were significantly more depressed than controls (and did not differ from each other); both current and former AD caregivers demonstrated significantly poorer responses when their NK (natural killer) cells were exposed in-vitro to recombinant interferon-gamma and recominant interleukin-2, compared with controls (but did not differ from each other)
Esterling, B.A., Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., & Glaser, R. (1996). Psychosocial modulation of cytokine-induced natural killer cell activity in older adults. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 264-272. (compared 28 current and former (> 3 yrs since death of patient) spousal caregivers of Alzheimer's disease patients and 29 control subjects; NK (natural killer) cell cytotoxicity was significantly decreased in both current and former spousal caregivers, compared with controls (both did not differ from each other); NK cell cytotoxicity was postively related to positive emotional and tangible social support (independent of depression))
Evans, D.L., Leserman, J., Perkins, D.O., Stern, R.A., Murphy, C., Zheng, B., Gettes, D., Longmate, J.A., Silva, S.G., van der Horst, c.M., Hall, C.D., Folds, J.D., Golden, R.N., & Petitto, J.M. (1997). Severe life stress as a predictor of early disease progression in HIV infection. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 630-634. (93 HIV-positive homosexual men, all without clinical symptoms at study entry; comprehensive interviews and physical examines were conducted at 6 month intervals, assessing stressful life events in preceding 6 months (omitting HIV-related stresses); subjects assessed over a 42 month period; subjects with high life stress (n=38) had significantly greater risk of early HIV disease progression, compared with low stress (n=55) (p=.03, RR=2.0); for every one severe stress per 6-month study interval, the risk of disease progression doubled; depression was unrelated to disease progression)
Evans, T.D., Cullen, F.T., Dunaway, R.G., & Burton, V.S. (1995). Religion and crime re-examined: The impact of religion, secular controls, and social ecology on adult criminality. Criminology, 33, 195-217. (C/S mailed survey of 550 men in a metropolitan area located in midwestern U.S. (average age 41, 100% white, $30k/y income); personal religiosity (attendance, religious reading, religious media), religious salience (influence of religious beliefs on behavior and reference to religious community in daily life), and "hell fire" (belief that the evil suffer in hell, God punishes sinners, AIDS punishment from God), denomiational conservatism, interpersonal religious network, and religious activity and religiousness of neighbors; six categories of sexular constraints, social ecology (social integration of neighborhood), and demographic controls (sex, age, income); crime assessed by times in past year committed any of 43 criminal acts; a significant inverse relationship between personal religiosity and crime weakened when secular constraints were added to the model; there was, however, a significant inverse relationship between religious activity and crime, even after controlling for secular constraints, religious conservatism, and other variables (clarify what "religious activity" variable they are talking about)
Evans, J.G. (1967). Deliberate self-poisoning in the Oxford area. British Journal of Preventative and Social Medicine, 21, 97-107. (Catholics vs. Other affiliations -- no difference)
Everson, S. A., Goldberg, D.E., Kaplan, G. A. (1996). Hopelessness and risk of mortality and incidence of myocardial infarction and cancer. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 113-121 A 6-year prospective cohort, population-based sample of 2428 middle-aged (42-60) Finnish men were surveyed on psychosocial issues, biological, behavioral, and socioeconomic covariates, disease history variables and mortality outcomes. Hopelessness was measured by 2 items on a 5-point Likert scale. The items were then reverse-scored and summed to create a hopelessness score. Low-score respondents (0, 1, or 2; 52.8% of sample) were the reference category for all analyses. High-score respondents (6, 7, or 8; 11% of sample) were considered "highly hopeless". Mean scores on this scale increased with age (p<.0001). An age-adjusted Cox proportional hazards model revealed "moderately hopeless men at more than twice the risk and highly hopeless men at more than three times the risk of death due to any cause" (p. 115). This pattern remained significant for adjustment: biological, behavioral or social class risk factors, perceived health status, positive disease history or prevalent disease, depression or measures of social support. Significance remained when simultaneously adjusting for all covariates. When analyzing cardiovascular mortality, men with moderate hopelessness scores were at approx 2.5 times the risk and men with high hopelessness scores were at nearly 4 times the risk for cardiovascular death. High hopelessness also predicted risk of death from violence or injury and incident MI, and moderate hopelessness was associated with incidence of cancer. There is support here "for the idea that hopelessness can be distinguished from depression, particularly in relation to its health impact." (p. 119). The authors suggest "that hopelessness operates through a variety of PNI pathways." (p. 120).
Everson, S.A., Kaplan, G.A., Goldberg, D.E., Salonen, R., Salonene, J.T. (1997). Hopelessness and 4-year progression of carotid atherosclerosis. The Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology, 17, 1490-1495. (middle-aged men who feel hopeless or feel like failures (high levels of despair) have a 20% greater increase in atherosclerosis over four years; this is the same risk when comparing a pack-a day smoker to a nonsmoker) (from the Human Population Laboratory at UC Berkeley)
Ewers, G. A. (1986). Four viewpoints: Churches of Christ. Australian Family Physician, 15, 1024.
