Past Research
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K
Kabat-Zinn, J., Lipworth, L., & Burney, R. (1985). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8, 163-190. (descriptive comparison of two functioning hospital clinics (not a prospective randomized trial) involving "mindfulness meditation" with 90 highly screened chronic pain patients; 10 week Stress-Reduction and Relaxation Program was the intervention; saw statistically significant reduction in pain symptoms, mood disturbance, psychological symptoms; pain-related drug utilization decreased and self-esteem increased; improvement was independent of sex, source of referral or type of pain; a comparison group of patients in the pain clinic (n=21) and referrals to the SRRP from the pain clinic (n=21) did not show similar improvement after traditional treatment protocols; at follow-up, improvements maintained for 15 months for all measures except 1 measure of pain; the majority of subjects reported high compliance with daily meditation (reduction of chronic pain)
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A.O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L.G., Fletcher, K.E., Pbert, L., Lenderking, W.R., & Santorelli, S.F. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 936-943. (prospective cohort study; 22 of 321 patients referred for a group stress reduction (meditation) and relaxation program who on the SCID fulfilled criteria for GAD or panic disorder were recruited into study (ages 26-65, 17 women); 8-week long course, weekly 2-hour classes and a 7.5 hour intensive meditation retreat session in week six; assessed at start and end of intervention and at monthly intervals for 3 months after treatment; no control group; significant reduction in symptoms of anxiety and depression during treatment that were maintained for at least 3 months after treatment ended; among 99 "nonstudy participants", similar effects were observed; as an "addendum" note, authors indicated that a 3-year follow-up showed that 18/22 subjects maintained effects - reported by Miller et al 1995 - see below)
Kaczorowski, J.M. (1989). Spiritual well-being and anxiety in adults diagnosed with cancer. The Hospice Journal, 5, 105-116. (C/S survey, convenience sample of 114 patients with cancer from a New York hospice (74% women, mean age 58, 60% Catholic); examines Spiritual Well-Being and state-trait anxiety; SWB related inversely to ST anxiety in sample and all subgroups (p<.001, except breast CA subgroup, p<.05); the SWB broken up into EWB and RWB, and ST anxiety broken up into SA and TA; RWB related inversely only to TA (-.20, p<.05))
Kahoe, R.D. (1974). Personality and achievement correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29, 812-818. (C/S survey of 518 college students at a religiously conservative college in the Midwest; found IR related to responsibility (.29), internal locus of control (.24), intrinsic motivational traits (.45), and grade point average (.25); extrinsic religiousness was correlated with dogmatism (.30) and authoritarianism (.33), but negatively with responsibility (-.40), internal control (-.25), intrinsic motives (-.25), and grade point average (.0.23), all p .01, uncontrolled)
Kaldestad, E. (1995). The empirical relationships of the religious orientations to personality. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 95-108. (C/S survey of 471 Christian subjects (303 females, 79 non-psychotic psychiatric inpatients, and 392 non-patients); religious orientation assessed as IR, ER, and Quest; correlated with Basic Character Inventory (BCI); IR was unrelated to BCI scores; ER and Q were related to BCI oral score (dependent and craving, insecure, vague and indecisive); chageable Q also related to changeable BCI hysterical character)
Kaldestad, E. (1996). The empirical relationships between standardized measures of religiosity and personality mental health. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 37, 205-220. (C/S survey of 471 Christian subjects (303 females, 79 non-psychotic psychiatric inpatients, and 392 non-patients); personal "extrinsicness" positively correlated with BCI Obsessive score; religious orientations explained 8.8% of variacne in BCI Oral Score, 4.2% of BCI Obsessive score, 3.3% of BCI hysterical score, and 12.3% of SCL-90 Global Symptom Index score; moral conservatism was inversely related to BCI Hysterical score)
Kaldjian, L.C., Jekel, J.F., & Friedland, G. (1998). End-of-life decisions in HIV-positive patients: The role of spiritual beliefs. AIDS, 12(1), 103-107. (C/S survey of 90 HIV positive patients; eligible were 130 sequentially admitted patients to a designated HIV/AIDS floor of Yale-New Haven Hospital between July-September 1993 and May-June 1994 (90% Christian, 3% Muslim, 7% no affiliation); results indicated that 44% of patients felt guilty above theier HIV infection, 32% experessed a fear of death, and 26% felt their disease was a form of punishment (17% a punishment from God); prior discussions about resuscitation status were more likely in the 81% of patients who believe in God's forgivness (p<.05), and less likely among those who perceived HIV infection as punishment (p<.01); a living will was more common in the 69% of patient who prayed daily and in those whose belief in God helped them when thinking about death; fear of death was less likely among those read the Bible frequently (p=.01) or attended church regularly (p=.015); 98% believed in a divine being called "God" whose love is unconditional (96%); 84% expressed a personal relationship with God; 82% said that their belief in God helped when thinking about death and 63% believed in life after death; 56% of patients could identify someone in their lives who served as a spiritual counselor, and half of the remaining 44% desired spiritual counseling (only 30% of patients had spoken with a hospital chaplain); 56% believed that it would be important to discuss spiritual needs with their physician and 46% indicatd that an opportunity to pray with their physicians would be helpful; concluded that spiritual beliefs and religious practices played a role in end-of-life decisions, and suggested that end-of-life discussions may be facilitated by belief in a forgiving God and impeded by belief in a punishing God, and that spiritual beliefs be included in discussions of terminal care) (no controls) (good)
Kamarck, T., & Jennings, J.R. (1991). Biobehavioral factors in sudden cardiac death. Psychology Bulletin, 109, 42-75. (authors reviewed the recent literature on psychological factors and sudden cardiac death and explored the mediating psychophysiological processes by which these variables were associated; concluded that there was abundant convergent evidence that several physiological precursors of sudden death are promoted by psychological challenge especially in patients with CAD; through neuroendocrine messengers as the catecholamines, serotonin, and cortisol, negative emotions have been associated with key pathogenic mechanisms for cardiac arrhythmias)
Kanagy (1993). A "greening" of religion? Some evidence from a Pennsylvania sample. Social Science Quarterly, 74, 674-683. (C/S state-wide survey of 3,632 Penssylvania residents in 1989; environmental beliefs and attitudes measured by a 12-item index (NEP) scored as NEP total, Balance of Nature, Limits to Growth, and Humans over Nature subscales; environmental behavior also assessed using a multi-item measure; religious variables were religious affiliation and frequency of religious attendance (1-6); religious attendance was inversely related to total NEP (partial r=-.18, p<.001), Balance of Nature (-.08, p<.001), Limits to Growth (-.15, p<.001), and Humans over Nature (-.17, p<.001, all controlled) (findings which are consistent with others' contention that Judeo-Christianity is detrimental to the acceptance of environmental values); however, religious attendance was positively related to environmental behavior (0.05, p<.05), and after controlling for demographcis and environmental attitudes, it was especially positively related to environmental behavior (0.07, p<.001); thus, while frequent attenders have negative attitudes toward environmental concerns (at least as measured by NEP) (an negative indirect effect (-.07), they have overall positive behaviors in this regard (a significant direct effect (.11, p<.001); actually, when people reject Judeo-Christian values, they often get "involved" in environmental issues)
Kandel, C.B., Adler, I., & Sudit, M. (1981). The epidemiology of adolescent drug use in France and Israel. American Journal of Public Health, 71(3), 256-265. Structured interviews were conducted with 499 French adolescents in 1977 and 609 Israeli adolescents in 1979 from urban areas in their respective countries. Subjects were asked about their use, and frequency of use, of cigarettes, alcoholic beverages for non-ritualistic purposes, and illicit drugs. The results showed that religious attendance in France was associated with lower general alcohol use (64% vs. 81% for beer, 73% vs. 80% for wine), marijuana/hashish use (2% vs. 24%), cigarette smoking (70% vs. 83%), and illicit drug use (9% vs. 29%). Israeli religiosity, measured by type of school attended (so results not as valid), was associated with lower cigarette use (37% vs. 46%), marijuana/hashish use (1% vs. 5%), and illicit drug use (2% vs. 18%). In Israel, religiosity was related to lower amounts of alcohol consumption but not a lower use of alcohol in general. All statistics are descriptive, with no indication of significance.
Kandel, D.B. (1984). Marijuana users in young adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 200-209. (C/S survey of 1,325 young adults ages 24-25 on marijuana use in 1980 (2nd wave of a prospective cohort study); initial cohort sampled in 1971 was a random sample of public high schools in New York State; examined frequency of marijuana use; found that those who attended religious services at least once within the past 12 months (!) were significantly less likely to use marijuana (both men and women in bivariate analysis); this was true whether living with spouse/partner or not living with spouse/partner (p<.001 in all cases, in both sexes, after other variables controlled, with the only except being in women not living with spouse/partner, where p<.01) (horrible religious measure, but amazing results)
Kandel, D.B. (1990). Early onset of adolescent sexual behavior and drug involvement. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 42, 783-798. (C/S survey of 2,711 involved in National Longitudinal Survey of Young Adults, a nationally representative sample of young adults (born in 1963 and 1964); religious affiliation and frequency of attendance (scaled 1-6); among men and women, regression analysis revealed that likelihood of initiating intercourse by age 16 was inversely predicted by religious attendance (beta -.09, p<.001, for men and beta -.13, p<.001, for women); Baptist affiliation also was correlated with greater likelihood for men (.33, p<.01) and women (.28, p<.10))
Kandel, D. B., Raveis, V. H., & Davies, M. (1991). Suicidal ideation in adolescence: Depression, substance use, and other risk factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 289-301.
Kandel, D.B., & Davies, M. (1992). Progression to regular marijuana involvement: Phenomenology and risk factors for near-daily use. In M. Glantz & R. Pickens (eds), Vulnerability to Drug Abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association ( pp 211-253) (don't have it) (survey of 645 adolescents ages 15-16 predicted lower initial use of marijuana, but not a shift from low to high use)
Kaplan, B.H. (1976). A note on religious beliefs and coronary heart disease. Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association, 72 (suppl), 60-64. (R) (notes that Winkelstein et al (1964) found little or no difference in proportion Catholic or Protestant among hospitalized female patients with CAD; same finding by Skyring (1963); Wardwell et al (1964) found more Protestants among those with MI vs controls; Ross & Thomas (1965) found that fathers of Catholic and Protestant medical students had similar CHD rates, but Jewish fathers had somewhat higher rates; refers to Jenkin's 1971 review; Epstein et al (1973) showed Jews with higher CAD than Italians; reports that in a forthcoming paper (which I could not locate on medline), found that age-adjusted rate of CHD for males was significantly lower for "church-goers" than for "non-church goers" (similar as for aged-controlled systolic and diastolic blood pressures (1967-69 Evans County Study); also reports on results from Israeli Ischemic Study (5-year incidence study) (personal communication from Medalie), finding that age-adjusted rate of CHD among Jews was 29/1000 among Orthodox Jews, 37/100 among traditional Jews, and 56/1000 among non-religious Jews) (uncontrolled)
Kaplan, B.H., Cassel, J.C., & Gore, S. (1977). Social support and health. Medical Care, 15, 47-58. (review) (those who are religiously affiliated or active, regardless of denomination, have more favorable health experience than those who are not members of any religious group)
Kaplan, B.H., Monroe-Blum, H., & Blazer, D.G. (1994). Religion, health, and forgiveness: Tradition and challenges. In J.S. Levin (ed), Religion in Aging and Health: Theoretical Foundations and Methodological Frontiers (pp 42-77). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (includes no research linking religion with forgiveness, but does discuss provide a historical review of what others have said by forgiveness, religion, and health) (something to reference, at least)
Kaplan, K., & Ross, L. (1995). Life ownership orientation and attitude toward abortion, suicide, and captial punishment. Journal of Psychology and Judasim, 19(2), 177-193.
Kark, J.D., Shemi, G., Friedlander, Y., Martin, O., & Manor, O., & Blondheim, S.H. (1996). Does religious observance promote health? Mortality in secular vs. religious kibbutzim in Israel. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 341-346. (16-year historical prospective cohort mortality study (1970-1985); 11 religious kibbutzim were matched with 11 secular kibbutzim, 3,900 person were involved; methods involved confirmation of the primary outcome (date of death) by multiple methods and included cross-checking for accuracy. Both age group and sex were taken into account by stratification, and Cox proportional hazards was used to further control for age as a continuous variable. Careful matching was performed to ensure that secular and religious kibbutzim were as similar as possible in characteristics that might affect mortality (social support, selection and retaining of members, etc.). While they did not directly control for differences in conventional risk factors (drinking, smoking, plasma cholesterol levels), they later examined these differences in members of 5 secular and 5 religious kibbutzim ages 35-65 in 1991; they did find differences for cholesterol and blood lipids and for smoking that favored the religious kibbutzim. They then used regression coefficients for these risk factors obtained from three other mortality studies, and applied them to the risk factors differences in the 1991 sample to see what impact this might have on mortality rates for the two types of kibbutzim. The effects on mortality were found to be negligible (risk factor differences of 1.0-1.2). Findings: 268 deaths occurred (69 in religious and 199 in secular kibbutzim); hazard ratio was 1.93 (95% CI 1.44-2.59, p<.0001). Important conclusions: even after eliminating social support as a possible confounding variable, members of religious kibbutzim still lived longer than those in secular kibbutzim. This helps to address the criticisms of those who feel the health effects of religion are all due to social support and nothing else. The size of the effect was substantial and clinically significant. Religious men lived just as long as secular women (elimination of the gender advantage in survival, which is a substantial effect). The pattern of effects on specific diseases was fascinating. Men were protected from deaths from coronary artery disease and circulatory disorders, whereas women were protected from deaths due to neoplasms. Multiple explanations were given to explain the survival advantage of persons living in religious kibbutzim, emphasizing the psychological and social advantages of religious beliefs and practice. Only 10 divorces occurred over 15 years in 17 religious kibbutzim; despite this, they still lived longer and were evidently not experiencing any greater stress. Lead author of study was Jeremy Kark, M.D., Ph.D., head of the cardiovascular unit for the Israel Center for Disease Control.
Kark, J.D., Carmel, S., Sinnreich, R., Goldberger, N., & Friedlander, Y. (1996). Psychosocial factors among members of religious and secular kibbutzim. Israel Journal of Medical Science, 32, 185-194. (C/S survey in 5 religious and 5 secular kibbutzim; 437 respndents were involved (229 women) ages 35-64 (RR 76%); religious kibbutz members reported a higher sense of coherence (OR 1.58, 1.02-2.46) and lower hostility level (OR .49, .33-.75) than secular kibbutz; no difference in social support or frequency of social contacts; concluded that "Membership in a cohesive religious kibbutz community may increase host resistance to stressors ad thereby promote overall well-being and a positive health status" (p 185)
Kaseman, C.M., & Anderson, R.G. (1977). Clergy consultation as a community mental health program. Community Mental Health Journal, 13, 84-91.
Kaslow, F., & Robinson, J.A. (1996). Long-term satisfying marriages: Perceptions of contributing factors. American Journal of Family Therapy, 24, 154-170. (convenience sample of 57 couples married from 25-46 years, from 9 different states in U.S. to determine "Why they stayed in their marriage now" and "Why they stayed together during the most difficult stage of their marriage"; out of 44 possible answer, told to check three; the following received the most checks: belief that marriage is a partnership for life (76%), love (57%), sense of responsibility toward the partner (38%), enjoyment of their established lifestyle and wish not to change it (32%), and religious convictions about the sanctity of marriage (31%); next, they were asked to rate what ingredients were conducive to satisfaction exist in the marriage, and what ingredients the respondent would desire to have as a part of the marriage; 42 possibilities were presented: currently in marriage (love, 82%; mutual trust, 81%; mutual respect, 77%; mutual support, 68%; and corresponding religious beliefs, 65%); desired in marriage (financial security, 27%; sexual fulfillment, 22%; expression of affection, 20%, openness and honesty, 18%; and frequent exchange of ideas, 18%))
Kass, J.D., Friedman, R., Leserman, J., Zuttermeister, P.C., Benson, H. (1991). Health outcomes and a new index of spiritual experience (INSPIRIT). Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 203-211. (C/S survey of 83 adults with serious medical disorders (musculoskeletal disorders, chronic pain, gastrointestinal disorders, hypertension, and cancer) who were involved in a 10 week program where they were taught the relaxation response (ages 25-72, 66% female, 94% white, 37% Catholic, 23% Protestant, 40% Jewish; mean education was 16.1 years!); data gathered before (T1) and after (T2) study; spiritual experience measured by INSPIRIT (Index of Core Spiritual Experiences), a 7-item scale "measuring the occurrence of experience that convince a person God exists and evoke feelings of closeness with God, including the perception that God dwells within; correlation between INSPIRIT and Intrinsic scale of the Allport & Ross' Religious Orientation Inventory was r=0.69, p<.0001) and was correlated weakly with Extrinsic scale (r=-.26, p=ns); at T1, after controlling for demographics, found INSPIRIT scores were significantly higher for persons eliciting relaxation response for more than one month (3.2 vs 2.7, p=.04); examined relationship of INSPIRIT scores (average of T1 and T2) with T2 Inventory of Positive Psychological Attitudes to Life (subscales of life purpose and satisfaction and self-confidence) and Medical Symptom Checklist (subscales frequency, distress, degree of interference), controlling for T1 physical health and demographics, and each of the outcomes at T1; INSPIRIT scores were significantly related to frequency of symptoms (beta -.31, p=.005) and life purpose and satisfaction (beta .15, p=.02); INSPIRIT unrelated to discomfort (-.16, p=.15), interference, or self-confidence; patients scoring low on the INSPIRIT showed a slight increase in average symptom frequency (adjusted mean change +.11), while those scoring high on INSPIRIT showed a moderate decrease (-.79); pretty good scale -- focuses on God, but broad enough to accommodate wider definitions of spirituality)
Kastenbaum, R. (1990). The age of saints and the saintliness of age. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 30, 95-118. (sample of 487 saints (118 females, 369 males) drawn from reference sources to meet the criteria of a) actual historical person, and (b) established dates of birth and death; martyrdom twice as common in men as women; female martyrs died young, males more likely to die in their 40's; male saints who were not martyred were studied more extensively; saints had a mean age of death of 70.0; females saints had a longevity of 58.1 years; male saints have had a longevity advantage throughout history, with female saints living an average of 7 years longer than other women and male saints living an average of 22 years longer than other men; a time trend was evident, however, in that the number of very old saints -- particularly centenarians -- has diminished in recent times; the saint is explored as a possible model of coping with the trials of old age)
Katchadourian, H. (1974). A comparative study of mental illness among the Christians and Moslems of Lebanon. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 20(1-2), 56-67. (case-control study showing that the prevalence rates of treated psychiatric illness among Christians vs. Moslems in Lebanon; base population of Christians is 976,000 which is similar to that of Moslems, and male-female ratio is about the same as well (however, the authors are only "assuming" that the number of Christians and Moslems in Lebanon is about the same!); found that rate of treated psychiatric illness is markedly higher in Christians than Moslems (289/100,000 vs. 178/100,000); the fact that most cases (53%) were reported from a large Christian institution operated by a religious order, and from a non-affiliated hospital founded by Quakers (30%) may have affected the results) (study is heavily flawed)
Katkin, S., Zimmerman, V., Rosenthal, J. Ginsburg, M. (1975). Using volunteer therapists to reduce hospital readmissions. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 26, 151-153. (Cincinnati, OH at community mental health center; volunteer therapists ensure patient takes medication, evaluates them for decompensation, helps them find housing and jobs, gives supportive counseling (volunteers spent several hours each week providing supportive counseling and other services); after 1 year, recidivism for 36 chronic schizophrenic women was 11% for group treated by volunteers vs. 34% for control group of 36 women treated with traditional after care (p<=.05); after two years, recidivism was 33% in treated group and 56% in control group (volunteers decreased their visits in the 2nd year to once/month); in a second program, the recidivism rate after 1 year for 11 persons (7 men and 4 women) with schizophrenia randomly assigned to the treatment group was 9%, compared with 37% for 11 control group members; in the latter study, volunteers saw patients weekly for first 4 months and then once every 2 weeks thereafter; both groups seen monthly by a psychiatrist and received chemotherapy) (has implications for effects that church volunteers may have on health service use by chronically mentally ill)
Katz M. (1976). Jewish Dietary Laws. Southern Autralian Medical Journal, November 20, 1976, 2004-2005. States that an observant Jewish worships God in every aspect of his life, in this case, eating, by blessing God before and after eating and by selecting foods according to the Torah. Reminds reader that Kosher diet is beneficial socially, psychologically, and medically and also to accept that the mitzvah of keeping kosher is because of God's supreme wisdom and should not be questioned.
Katz, J., Weiner, H., Gallagher, T., et al (1970). Stress, distress, and ego defenses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 23, 131-142. (C/S convenience sample at Montefiore Hospital, NY; among a group of 30 women in good health women awaiting breast biopsy for possible cancer (22 were positive) (11 Jewish, 10 Ca, 7 Prot); correlated hydrocortisone production rates with types of psychological defenses used; those who employed prayer and faith (n=4) appeared to have lower cortisone production rates than than those depending on project or displacement) (no stats) (descriptive) (R 5)
Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B.P., & Lochner, K. (1997). Long live community: Social capital as public health. The American Prospect, no. 35, pp 56-59 (Q) (emphasizes importance of social support and social cohesion for health and economic growth)
Kaye, J., & Robinson, K.M. (1994). Spirituality among caregivers. IMAGE: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 26, 218-221. (D & R)
Kearney, M. (1970). Drunkenness and religious conversion in a Mexican village. Quarterly Journal of Studies On Alcohol, 31, 132-152. (mostly case reports, but builds case for religion's role as a tool in achieving abstinence; conversion from Catholicism to Protestantism (7th Day Adventist)
Keefe, F.J., Crisson, J., Urban, B.J., & Williams, D.A. (1990). Analyzing chronic low back pain: The relative contribution of pain coping strategies. Pain, 40, 293-301. (C/S survey of 62 consecutive chronic low back pain patients referred to Pain Management Program at DUMC (39 females, 23 males, mean age 44, mean duration of pain 7 years); diverting attention and praying subscale of Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ); this subscale was positively related to pain (McGill Pain Questionnaire) and accounted for 9% of the variance in reported pain; of course, people in more pain are probably more likely to pray about it; plus, this measure was not a pure assessment of prayer)
Keene, J.J. (1967). Religious behavior and neuroticism, spontaneity, and worldmindedness. Sociometry, 30, 137-157. (C/S survey of convenience sample of subjects obtained from social, educational, and religious groups in Tulsa, OK, and Chicago, Ill; total of 681 urban adults (98 Jews, 130 Catholics, 245 Protestants), and 112 Bahai's, and 96 non-affiliates); five subsamples of 50 subjects each were matched across the five religious groups by age, sex, education, and occupation (total 250 for analyses); Jews were 50% Conservative and 40% Reformed; Protestants were 14% Methodist, 14% Presbyterian, 14% Baptist, 10% Lutheran, 10% Unitarian, etc.; four religious factors were: 21-item religious salient/irrelevant factor, a 6-item spiritual/secular factor, a 3-item religious skeptical/approving factor, and a 5-item religious orthodoxy/personal factor; personality factors included neurotic/adaptive (NA), spontaneous/inhibited (SI), worldminded/ethnocentric (WE), and self-accommodating/group-accommodating (SAGA); using factor analysis, Jews were characterized personality-wise as group-accomodating, ethnocentric, and inhibited, and religious-wise as orthodox, spiritual, and salient; Catholics were divided into two groups, Group 1 characterized as neurotic, self-accomodating, ethnocentric, and inhibited, and religious-wise as irrelevant, secular, and orthodox; Group 2 as ethnocentric, group-accommodating, neurotic, and spontaneous, as well as orthodox, spiritual, and salient; Protestants were characterized as group-accomodating and sponataneous, and also salient, spiritual, approving, and personal; non-affiliates were characterized as worldminded, adaptive, self-accommodating, and religious-wise as secular, personal, and approving); religious salience was correlated with adaptive behavior, but orthodoxy was correlated with neuroticism; skepticism or religion was also correlated with neuroticism; no controls)
Kehn, D.J. (1995). Predictors of elderly happiness. Activities, Adaptation, and Aging. 19(3), 11-29. (C/S survey of 98 community-dwelling elders age 65 or over (average age 72) in Monmouth county, NJ, sought to determine predictors of happiness; the Life Satisfaction Index was the dependent variable; predictors included living with spouse, being married, and being independent with regard to transportation; belief in God (1=none, 5=strong) and church membership (yes/no) were religious variables; belief in God was correlated with happiness (r=.26, p<.05), but not church membership; subjective health was also significantly related to happiness (r=.43, p<.01); correlations were not controlled)
Kehoe, N. C. (1999). A therapy group on spiritual issues for patients with chronic mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 50, 1081-1083. (Author describes experiences gained over 18 years of conducting a therapy group were chronically ill psychiatric patients that focuses on spiritual beliefs and values. Staff concerns that discussion of religious and spiritual material would foster patients' delusional ideation or strengthen their defenses and be counterproductive to treatment or that patients cannot tolerate diverse systems of beliefs--have not been borne out. Such groups were found to foster tolerance, self-awareness, and non-pathogenic therapeutic exploration of value systems.
Kehoe, N.C., & Gutheil, T.G. (1994). Neglect of religious issues in scale-based assessment of suicidal patients. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45, 366-369.
Keilman, L.J., & Given, B.A. (1990). Spirituality: an untapped resource for hope and coping in family caregivers of individuals with cancer. Oncology Nursing Forum, 17, 159. (C/S survey of 100 caregivers of cancer patients; spiritual/philosophical subscale of Coping Resources Inventory and CES-D administered and found to correlate at Pearson r=.24, p<.001, uncontrolled) (abstract)
Keith, P.M. (1979). Life changes and perceptions of life and death among older men and women. Journal of Gerontology, 34, 870-878. (C/S survey of 214 elderly men and 354 elderly women as part of a study of aged in small towns (Missouri) (median age 79) (sampling method unknown); over half had 8th grade education, and median income for men was $3,386/yr and for women was $2,041/yr; respondents asked if church activities were more or about the same (continuous), or less (change) than they were 8 year previously; among men, continued participation in church was associated with negative attitudes toward death (63% vs 51% for those who declined in participation), whereas continued participation among women was associated with positive attitudes toward death (64% vs. 55% who declined); men demonstrating continuity of church attendance were also more likely to report positive attitudes toward life (65% vs 41% of those who declined); findings were similar for women (73% vs 49% of those who declined) (uncontrolled)
Kelley, M.W. (1958). The incidence of hospitalized mental illness among religious sisters in the U.S. American Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 72-75. (case-control study of rates of hospitalization for mental illness among all women religious in the United States in 1956 at 357 private and public hospitals with psychiatric facilities, comparing it to the rate of hospitalization for the general population of women in the U.S. during that year; found that hospitalization of women religious was less than for other women (319.6 per 100,000 vs. 358.3 per 100,000, p=.02); for diagnoses of schizophrenia, the ratio was 193.7 per 100,000 vs. 259.6 per 100,000 (p<.001), although mental illness among sisters increased more rapidly than in the general population of women between 1935 and 1956)
Kelly, M.J., Olive, K.E., Harvill, L.M., & Maddry, H.A. (1996). Spiritual and religious issues in clinical care: An elective course for medical students. Annals of Behavioral Science and Medical Education, 3 (2), 1-7 (page numbers unsure) (describes the results of the faith & medicine grant awards program at School of Medicine, East Tennessee State University)
Kendler, K.S., Gardner, C.O., & Prescott, C.A. (1997). Religion, psychopathology, and substance use and abuse: A multimeasure, genetic-epidemiologic study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 322-329 (C/S survey of 849 white female same sex twins (496 monozygotic and 353 dizygotic) and 204 single members of twin pair (total n=1902) from population-based Virginia Twin Registry; 5 years separated Wave I and Wave III of this study; Wave I interview assessed lifetime dx of major psychiatric illnesses, including major depression using DSM-III-R criteria; at Wave I and Wave III, 30-items from SCL-90 assessed psychiatric symptoms, and 9 personal and 22 network stressful life events were also assessed; at Wave III, also assessed monthly alcohol consumptions and daily cigarette intake; at Wave I, assessed religious affiliation, developing an institutional conservatism scale; at Wave III, developed two scales assessing personal devotion and personal conservatism; at Wave I and Wave III also assessed frequency of religious attendance; asked 9 other questions to assess a range of attitudes and beliefs about religion at Wave III (10 total) (factor analyzed to produce the scales for personal devotion (3 items -- importance of religious/spiritual beliefs, seeking religious/spiritual comfort, and frequency of private prayer to God) and personal conservatism (2 items -- belief that God rewards and punishes, literal belief in Bible); tested stress-buffering effects of religiosity (Wave III) on depressive symptoms by examining the "interaction" between Wave I stressful life events and Wave III religiosity on Wave I depressive symptoms (which they claimed was done to reduce correlated errors, although they are assuming that religiosity remained stable and unchanged for 5 years! (providing a test-retest correlation of .61 between Wave I and Wave II church attendance as proof of stability); also examined relationship between Wave III religiosity and Wave I lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders; personal devotional scales and personal conservatism scales, along with the 5-category institutional conservatism scale from Wave I, were examined as predictor variables of Wave I life-time psychiatric disorders; genetics results indicated that correlations between twin pairs were higher in monozygotic than dizygotic twins for all three religious measures (.52 vs .40 for personal devotion; .47 vs .43 for personal conservatism; and .63 vs .57 for institutional conservatism); family environment and unknown individual and environmental factors made important contributions to twin resemblance in personal devotion (24% and 47% of variance), personal conservatism (45% and 55% of variance), and institutional conservatism (51% and 37%), leaving genetic influences at 29%, 0%, and 12%, respectively; mental health results indicated that 1/12 associations (regression controlled) between 3 religious measures and Wave III SCL-90 depression, panic-phobia, somatization, and sleep were significant (Wave III personal devotion and Wave III depressive symptoms, -.09, p<.0001, df 1854); all three religious measures, however, were inversely related to Wave III current alcohol use (-2.77, -2.10, -2.43, all p<.0001) and Wave III current cigarette smoking (-1.59 (p<.0001), -.04 (p > .01), and -.058 (p<.01)); of 15 associations with lifetime risk of psychiatric disorders (Wave I), only Wave I institutional conservatism was inversely related to major depression (lifetime risk 0.91, p<.01) (the Wave III dimensions were not); all three measures were inversely related to Wave I problem drinking/alcoholism, and personal devotion was inversely related to Wave III life-time nicotine dependence (0.79, p<.01), as was institutional conservatism to a lesser extent (0.86, p<.05); high personal devotion (but not other two measures) was also "associated with less of a response to the depressogenic effects of stressful life events" (p 325) (p<.01, controlling for age, education level, SLE, and interaction between education and SLE) (interaction between devotion and SLE's significant in predicting depressive symptoms) (Wave of analysis unknown) (major study)
Kendler, K. S., Gardner, CO, Prescott, C.A. (1999). Clarifying the relationship between religiosity and psychiatric illness: the impact of covariates and the specificity a buffering effects. Twin Research, 2, 137-144. (Further cross-sectional analysis of their large population-based sample of female twins; originally found that personal devotion buffered the depressogenic effects of stressful life events. Now examined eight personality and six demographic variables as to their effects on the three dimensions of religiousness. Personal devotion (importance of religious/spiritual beliefs, seeking religious/spiritual comfort, and frequency of private prayer to God) was associated with years of education, age, and optimism and was negatively correlated with neuroticism. Personal conservatism (belief that God rewards and punishes, literal belief in Bible) was negatively associated with education, income, age, and mastery and positively associated with neuroticism. Institutional conservatism was negatively correlated with self-esteem and parental education. The impact of the dimensions of religiosity differed as a function of the stressful life event category. High levels of both personal devotion and institutional conservatism protected against depressogenic effects of death and personal illness. High levels of personal conservatism were associate with increased sensitivity to relationship problems. The authors conclude "These results suggest that the association between religiosity and low-risk for symptoms of depression and substance use may be in part causal." (p 137)
Kendrick, SB (2000). Biography of articles related to spirituality and medicine. Presentation at Wake Forest University School of Medicine. Gives numerous recent articles on the topic.
Kennedy, G.J., Kelman, H.R., Thomas, C., & Chen, J. (1996). The relation of religious preference and practice to depressive symptoms among 1,855 older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 51B, P301-P308. (prospective cohort study of 1855 older community residents (40% Jewish and 47% Catholic) in New York (North Bronx); Jews were more likely to have had a mental health visit than Catholics or other faiths (3.2% vs 1.4% and 1.8%), more likely to use psychotropic medication (10.8% vs 7.0% and 4.9%), more likely to score high on the CES-D depression scale (20.7% vs. 9.5% and 12.3%) (using logistic regression to control for other covariates, Jews were 75% more likely than persons of other affiliations to have depression, OR 1.75, 95% CI 1.51-2.01, p<.0001); frequent religious attendance was associated with lower rates of depression in Catholics, but not Jews; Catholics who attended services once/month or more were over 60% less likely to be depressed (OR 0.37, 95% CI 0.24-0.56, p<.0001); when followed over 24 months, Jews were more likely to experience an emergence of depression than Catholics or other faiths (50.7% vs 37.3% and 11.9%, a difference that persisted after controlling for 6 other predictors of depression in a multivariate model) and to have persistent depression if depressed at the start of the study (64.5% vs 27.9% and 7.5%); the percentage of persons not attending religious services was significantly greater in both the depression-emerged and the depression-persisted groups; when other variables were controlled, including religious preference, attendance no longer predicted depression emergence or persistence)
Kennedy, J.E., Davis, R.C., and Taylor, B.G. (1998). Changes in Spirituality and Well-Being Among Victims of Sexual Assault. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37(2):322-328. C/S convenience sample of 70 female sexual assault victims, 9-24 months after reported assault, to address effect of stress on spirituality and such a relationship's connection to recovery. Sexual assault theoretically distinct from more common, unexpected traumatic events such as robbery, where "chance" or "accident" is a less viable interpretation. Sample obtained from New York City crisis centers, police reports, and victims services centers; average age 30, range 19-46; non-domestic violence cases; 66% black, 16 Hispanic, 12 white; 39% only had a high school education, 48 some college; 70% had family income below $20,000. Well-being measured as seven items from Medical Outcomes Study (Stewart and Ware 1992), spirituality from five items (asking for changes since assault in areas of belief in divine plan, search for spiritual meaning, tendency to base actions on guidance from higher power), and intrinsic religiosity from 6 items based on Genia 1993. 61% of subjects reported increased spirituality (71% black, 54 Hispanic, 38 whites), 20% decreased spirituality. Partial correlation (income, education, age controlled) between change in spirituality and change in well-being = .54 (p<.0001); most of this correlation comes from those who reported no change in spirituality & whose well-being decreased, rather than those who reported changes in spirituality & whose well-being increased. Intrinsic religiosity showed same pattern, although weaker (r=.28, p<.02). Authors argue spirituality is a coping mechanism, but note the weakness of their non-prospective data to tease out possibly complex causal relationships.
Kennedy, S., Kiecolt-Glaser, J., & Glaser, R. (1988). Immunological consequences of acute and chronic stressors: Mediating role of interpersonal relationships. British Journal of Medical Psychology , 61, 77-85. (review) (overviews studies that include a group of medical students, found that taking academic examinations was associated with reduced percentages of t-helper lymphocytes and decreased numbers and activities of natural killer cells; students with strong psychosocial support were partly spared of these immune system effects; also found that caring for relative with Alzheimer's disease or marital separation/divorce was related to impaired immune system functioning)
Kerr, W.G., Thompson, M.A. (1972). Acceptance of disability of sudden onset in paraplegia. Paraplegia, 10, 94-102. Notes religion helpful, but no analysis with coping or disability presented; not worth including. Only mention of religion is the following sentence: "A strongly held feeling of support through religious belief is naturally an added help in getting help through the emotional stages leading to re-identification but when belief becomes delusion this can lead to failure, as with one of the patients among our own series who is still lying in bed, at home, waiting for the miracle that he is still convinces will occur enabling him to pick up his bed and walk."
Kesselring, A., Dodd, M.J., Lindsey, A.M., & Strauss, A.L. (1986). Attitudes of patients living in Switzerland about cancer and its treatment. Cancer Nursing, 9, 77-85. (descriptive study of meaning of illness and its treatments to 45 Swiss patients with cancer; 17 of 45 (38%) indicated that faith in God and prayer were important sources of experienced help; compared to a separate study of 40 Egyptian cancer patients, where 37 of 40 (92%) indicated that God or Allah was important in coping)
Kessler, I.I., Kulcar, Z., Zimolo, A., Grgurevic, M., Strnad, M., & Goodwin, B. (1974). Cervical cancer in Yugoslavia. II. Epidemiologic factors of possible etiologic significance. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 53, 51-60. (case-control study of cervical cancer in Moslems and non-Moslems in Yugoslavia (cases=350 women age 65, 150 Moslems and 200 non-Moslems); controls were selected randomly among currently hospitalized women without cervical CA or STD similar in age, marital status, religion, and urban/rural residence; Muslim women controls were more likely to report that they were strictly observant of religious ritual (60.0% vs 47.7%, p<.05); controls were also less likely to smoke or drink, which may at least part explain the differences between strictly observant and non-observant Muslims) (no differences for non-muslims on religious observance)
Kesterson, J., & Clinch, N.F. (1989). Metabolic rate, respiratory exchange ratio, and apneas during meditation. American Journal of Physiology, 256, R632-R638. (3 groups of meditators (n=13, n=11, and n=8 (apnea group), based on degree of apnea; all volunteers and experience from the Maharishi International University; longest apneic period was 75 seconds, and one subject was apneic for 375 s of the first 10 minutes or 63% of the time; results indicated that drop in respiratory exchange ratio was due to mild hypoventilation, not a drop in metabolic rate) (argues against the notion that even deep meditation decreases metabolic rate)
Khan, S. N. (1986). The Islamic viewpoint. Australian Family Physician, 15, 179-180.
Khavari, K.A., & Harmon, T.M. (1982). The relationship between the degree of professed religious belief and use of drugs. The International Journal of the Addictions, 17, 847-857. (C/S survey of 4,853 persons (sampling method not reported) from various occupations, such as college students, members of labor unions, military reservists, and housewives, with median age of 21.7 yr and range of 12 to 85; 53% male, 89% White, 45% Catholic, 31% Protestant, 16% none) (Milwaukee, WI); religious affiliation and degree of religious conviction assessed (1 question asking "How religious are you?" with 4 response options: very religious (13% or n=473), moderately religious (44%), slightly religious (29%), and not religious at all (14% or n=537)); outcomes were drinking behavior, including frequency, amount, maximum amount, and frequency of consuming maximum amount; also administered the Wisconsin Substance Use Inventory (assesses use of 19 drugs and provides an overall index of drug involvement); importance of religion and cigarette smoking); comparing "very religious" and "not religious" groups, found significant differences in use of alcohol (p<.01), marijuana (p<.01), hashish (p<.01), amphetamines (p<.05), and tobacco (p<.01) (all uncontrolled); used discriminant analysis used to correctly predict religiousness based on drug use behaviors (8 out of 10 subjects were correctly classified in this manner, 6 out of 10 were correctly classified in non-religious category); did not report results for moderately or slightly religious subjects (n=3843)) (weak study)
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Malarkey, W.B., Chee, M., Newton, T., Cacioppo, J.T. Mao, H.Y., & Glaser, R. (1993). Negative behavior during marital conflict is associated with immunological down-regulation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 395-409. (90 newlywed couples; S's who displayed more negative/hostile behaviors during a 30 minute discussion of marital problems showed greated decreases (relative to low negative S's) on (1) natural killer cell lysis, (2) blastogenic response to two mitogens, (3) proliferative response to a monoclonal antibody to the T3 receptor, (4) larger increases in numbers of total T lymphocytes and helper T lymphocytes, (5) higher antibody titers to latent Epstein-Barr virus (consistent with down-regulated immune function), and (6) larger increases in blood pressure that remained elevated longer; women showed greater responses than men)
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., & Glaser, R. (1994). Caregivers, mental health, and immune function. In E.Light, g. Niederehe, & B.D. Lebowitz (eds), Stress Effects on Family Caregivers of Alzheimer's Patients: Research and Intervention (pp 64-75). NY: Springer Publishing Company.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., & Glaser, R. (1995). Psychoneuroimmunology and health consequences: Data and shared mechanisms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 269-274. (reviews the evidence linking psychosocially mediated immunological alterations with cancer, infectious illnesses, and HIV progression; immune modulation by psychosocial stressors and/or interventions may importantly influence health status; research also suggests the impact of chronic stressors and psychosocial factors on sympathetic nervous system and endocrine functions that influence the immune system, further impacting on disease susceptibility and progression)
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Newton, T., Cacioppo, J.T., MacCallum, R.C., Glaser, R., & Malarkey, W.B. (1996). Marital conflict and endocrine function: Are men really more physiologically affected than women? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 64, 324-332. (assessed 90 newlywed couples on days experiencing conflict; for wives, husband's withdrawal in response to wife's negative behavior was associated with higher NEPI and cortisol levels; higher frequencies of positive behaviors were associated with lower EPI and higher prolactin levels in wives; husband's endocrine data were not associated with behavioral data)
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Glaser, R., Gravenstein, S., Malarkey, W.B., & Sheridan, J. (1996). Chronic stress alters the immune response to influenza virus vaccine in older adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 3043-3047. (compared 32 dementia caregivers with 32 sex-, age-, and socioeconomically matched controls; caregivers showed poorer antibody response following vaccination relative to control subjects as measured by two independent methods; in addition, caregivers also had decreased in vitro virus-specific-induced interleukin 2 levels and interleukin 1 beta; suggests chronic stress is associated with down-regulation of immune response to influenza vaccination in elderly)
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Marucha, P.T., Malarkey, w.B., Mercado, A.M., & Glaser, R. (1996). Slowing of wound healing by psychological stress. Lancet, 346(8984):1194-1196. (awesome) (13 women (mean age 62) caring for demented relatives compared with 13 controls matched for age (60 yo) and family income; subjects underwent 3.5 mm punch biopsy; healing assessed by photography of wound and response to hydrogen peroxide (healing defined as no foaming); wounds in caregivers took significantly longer to heal (48.7 vs 39.3 days, p<.05); furthermore, peripheral blood leukocytes of caregivers produced signifciantly less interleukin-1 beta mRNA in response to lipopolysaccharide stimulation)
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Glaser, R., Cacioppo, J.T., MacCallum, R.C., Snydersmith, M., Kim. C., & Malarkey, W.B. (1997). Marital conflict in older adults: endocrinological and immunological correlates. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 339-349. (31 older couples -- mean age 67 -- married an average 42 years; 30 minute conflict session followed by 15 min recovery; among wives, escalation of negative behavior during conflict and marital satisfaction showed strong relationships to endocrine changes, explaining 16% to 21% of variance in rates of change of cortisol, ACTH, and norepinephrine (but not EPI); in contrast, husbands endocrine data did not show relationships with negative behavior or marital quality; both men and women with negative behavior during conflict showed poorer immunological responses across several functional assays (blastogenic repsonse to two T cell mitogens and antibody titers to latent EB virus)
King, D. E., Hueston, W., Rudy, M. (1994). Religious affiliation and obstetrical outcome. Southern Medical Journal, 87, 1125-1128. (1919 obstetrical patient records were reviewed by investigators. The mother's religious affiliation was compared to the rate of neonatal intensive care unit admissions. Maternal complications and NICU admissions for mothers with a religious affiliation were significantly lower than for those with no affiliation. Even after controlling for age, parity, mental status, payment method, and obstetrical risk, NICU admissions was still lower among those affiliated with a religious organization (p=.02).
King, D.E., Sobal J., & DeForge, B.R. (1988). Family practice patients' experiences and beliefs in faith healing. Journal of Family Practice, 27, 505-508 (C/S survey of 207 patients are a rural family practice center in Gatesville, North Carolina (47% Black, 68% Baptist); 58% reported that faith healers are quacks; 29% believed that faith healers can help some people who physicians cannot help; 56% watched faith healers on TV, 21% had attended a faith healing service; 6% said they had been healed by faith healers and 15% knew someone who had been healed; positive attitudes towards and participation in faith healing was significantly more common among Blacks and among those with less than a high school education)
King, D.E., Sobal, J., Haggerty, J., Dent, M., & Patton, D. (1992). Experiences and attitudes about faith healing among family physicians. Journal of Family Practice, 35, 158-162. (C/S mailed survey of 594 (out of 1025) family physicians in 7 states; 52% had at least 1 patient in their practice with a faith healing experience; 55% agreed that reliance on faith healers often leads to serious medical problems; 44% thought that physicians and faith healers can work together to cure some patients; 23% believe that faith healers divinely heal some people some patients whom physicians cannot help; found that physicians usually did not discussed religious issues with patients--83% did so only sometimes or rarely. 93% agreed or strongly agreed that physicians should consider patients' spiritual needs).
King, D.E., & Bushwick, B. (1994). Beliefs and attitudes of hospital inpatients about faith healing and prayer. Journal of Family Practice, 39, 349-352. (C/S survey of 203 inpatients at Pitt County Memorial Hospital in eastern North Carolina (n=120, mean age 48, 37% white), and at York Hospital in York, Pennsylvania (n=83, mean age 61, 93% white); 98% believed in God, with 58% indicating "very strong" in their beliefs; 73% prayed daily or more often; 48% said that they would like their physician to pray with them (54% NC, 40% York) and 42% expressed the opinion that physicians should ask patients about faith healing experiences; 77% indicated that the physician should consider their patients' spiritual needs and 37% wanted their physicians to discuss their religious beliefs more (31% NC vs 47% York); 80%, however, said that their physicians had never or only rarely discussed religious beliefs with them; attendance at faith-healing service was a strong predictor of other attitudes about prayer and physician involvement in religious issues; of those who had such experiences, 63% wanted their physicians to pray with them)
King, D., Shende, AM (1998). Do our patients believed in miracles? In submission. (Surveyed the beliefs and experiences about miracles and other spiritual concerns of 100 inpatients, 100 outpatients, and 1052 people living in the community (NC). Of the 1052 persons in the community, 95% consider themselves religious, 64% said there beliefs were very strong, and 43% attended church at least once a week. Among medical inpatients, 93% believed in miracles compared to 90% of outpatients and 88% of subjects living in the community. 57% of inpatients and 53% of outpatients indicated that they either witnessed a medical miracle or was personally aware of a medical miracle. Most subjects--94% of inpatients, 77% of outpatients, and 80% of the community subjects--agreed that God can act through doctors to heal people)
King, H.G., Diamond, E., & Bailar, J.C. (1965). Cancer mortality and religious preference. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 43, 349-358. (case-control study of 1,754 cancer deaths among white residents of Baltimore city and county in 1959; compared to living persons in Baltimore area in 1957, among cancer deaths were 34% Catholic (vs. 33% for general population), 9% Jewish (vs. 8% for general population), and 51% for Protestants (vs. 56% in general population); denomination based on funeral home where service was held (since funeral home reports name of cemetery of burial); when examining types of cancer deaths, found that among Jewish men (ratio for all faiths=.44), cancers of respiratory system were rare, as well as CA of intestine, rectum, and leukemia, but more common of "urinary organs"; Catholics males had higher rates of respiratory CA (ratio=1.35); Jewish women had lower rates of cancer of cervix, corpus uteri (ratio=0.33), but higher rates of CA of lymphatic and hematopoietic tissues and digestive system)
King, H.G., & Bailar, J.C. (1968). Mortality among Lutheran clergymen. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 46, 527-548. (historical cohort study of mortality in 3,914 Lutheran clergymen in U.S. and Canada between 1950 to 1960 (nearly all white) (deaths=609); SMR computed on basis of mortality experience of U.S. white males of comparable ages in 1955; SMR from all causes was 73 (no statistical comparison made), with lowest SMR under age 55 (SMR=33-35); lower death rates especially due to fewer cardiovascular-renal diseases (SMR 80 overall, but SMR 25-37 under age 55); there were much higher numbers of leukemia/aleukemia but not lymphoma deaths among clergy (SMR 160) (n=8, though) (no control variables other than age)
[King, H.G., & Bailar, J.C. (1969). The health of the clergy: A review of demographic literature. Demography, 6, 27-43.]
King, H. (1970). Health in the medical and other learned professions. Journal of Chronic Disease, 23, 257-281. (examined SMR for males aged 20-65 by profession in England and Wales between 1860-1953: occupied and retired males: 100-101, physicians 89-106, lawyers 88-107, teachers 66-71, and clergymen 60-81; for United States 1950, the findings are: white males (92), physicians (91), lawyers and judges (90), college presidents, professors, instructors (52, teachers (61), white clergymen (83); for England and Wales 1950: males (82), physicians (73), judges, barristers (72), teachers (54), clergymen (68); relatively high rate of death among physicians, especially for suicide, and especially among psychiatrists); clergymen have lower death rates than physicians or lawyers or teachers)
King, H. (1971). Clerical mortality patterns of the Anglican communion. Social Biology, 18, 164-177. (examined mortality rate and causes of death among nearly all 6,925 white clergymen of the Protestant Episcopal Church in U.S. from 1950-1960 (1,387 deaths); SMR (based on death rates for similarly aged white males in U.S. in 1955) was 72 overall (compared to 106 for Anglican clergymen in England), and was lowest for those ages 20-44 (SMR 53); for major cardiovascular-renal deaths, SMR was 72; for cancer, SMR was 61; for suicide, SMR was 59); SMR's for both U.S. Episcopal and English Anglican were lower than for physicians in England and Wales for persons aged 20-64 (67 and 30-78 vs. 71-87)
King, H., & Locke, F.B. (1980). American white Protestant clergy as a low-risk population for mortality research. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 65, 1115-1124. (mortality rate in 1950-1960 among 28,134 clergymen in five primarily white Protestant denominations (American Baptist Convention, United Lutheran Church, Episcopal Church, United Presbyterian Church, and Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod) (deaths=5207); found lower rates of death from all causes (SMR 72), cancer (SMR 63), and cardiovascular-renal diseases (SMR 74), when compared with U.S. white males; SMRs were particularly low for cancer of the lung (SMR 35), for non-motor-vehicle accidents (39), and for suicide (SMR 32); no differences were found for diabetes, leukemia, cancers of prostate, lymphoma, cancers of intestine or pancreas; for ages 20-64, the SMR (calculated for all races) was 48, which was not much different than for teachers (SMR=61), college faculty members (52), but was substantially below that of physicians (90), lawyers (91), and other white clergymen (83))
King, M., Speck, P., & Thomas, A. (1994). Spiritual and religious beliefs in acute illness -- is this a feasible area of study? Social Science and Medicine, 38, 631-635. (6-month prospective cohort study of 300 patients consecutively admitted to an acute hospital in London, England (91% white, 56% male, mean age 58, 51% cardiovascular disease, 11% cancer; 40% Anglican, 12% Jewish, 3% Islam, 2% Hindu); semi-structured interview used to assess religious, spiritual, and philosophical beliefs (describe belief system, practices, and their significance in daily life), and also administered 8-item belief questionnaire (e.g., faith in a power outside of the self is important in healing); also given 12-item GHQ (Goldberg) assessing psychological distress; at 6 months, GHQ and faith questions re-administered and hospital records reviewed to determine progress during 6 months, defined as "good" if patient was improved, vs. "other" if stayed same or worsened; results: 58% described self as religious & spiritual, 19% as "spiritual but not religious" (believing in transcendent power, but not participating in an organized religion), 14% as philosophical (search for existential meaning in life but without reference to a transcendent), and 9% with no belief system; at 6 months, patients with low belief scores were more likely to have "good" outcomes than those with moderate or high belief scores (81% of 27 vs. 47% of 142 or 53% of 49, p=.01); logistic regression demonstrated that persons who agreed with the statement, "Without God, I would not have come through my last crisis" were 2.4 times less likely to have a good outcome than those who disagreed with this statement (n=216); furthermore, outcomes at 6 months were unrelated to strength of beliefs assessed 6 months earlier); highly selective in their analyses (? were patients with strong religious beliefs sicker at beginning of study ?; also what kind of beliefs were they measuring ?) (negative study)
King, M., Speck, P., & Thomas, A. (1999). The effect of spiritual beliefs on outcome from illness. Social Science and Medicine, 48, 1291-1299. Prospective cohort study of 250 patients (125 cardiac -70% male, mean age 66; and 125 gynecological (100% women, mean age 39) admitted to a London teaching hospital (systematic) who were followed up for nine months, examining effects of spiritual beliefs on clinical status as recorded in outpatient records and patients' self reported health. Used Royal Free Interview for Religious and Spiritual Beliefs (King et al. 1995) which includes a spiritual scale that sums answers to visual analog questions on the strength with which it spiritual belief is held. 179 patients (79%) professed some form of spiritual belief, whether or not they were involved in religious activity. Strength of religious belief was lower in patients in a more serious clinical state on admission (F=3.1, p=.05, n=192). On admission, 62% of cardiology patients considered themselves religious and spiritual compared with 54% of the gynecological group; 18% of the cardiology group considered themselves spiritual only compared with 24% of the gynecological group; 60% of the cardiology group and 72% of the gynecological group considered themselves Christian. Case note information available nine months later or 234 patients and contains information for determining clinical outcome in 189 (although only 145 completed follow-up questionnaire). Clinical outcome was determined by examining hospital records of all patients to assess clinical progress since admission. Assessment made by two raters blind to type of belief held by the patient or other characteristics. Outcome assessed as improved or completely well, no change, or worse clinical state or death. Spiritual belief declined during the follow-up. Falling by 2.4 points in the cardiology group and 3.7 points in the gynecological group. Fall in spiritual belief was greatest in patients with poor clinical outcome. Thus, decreasing spiritual belief predicted poor clinical outcome. Patients with stronger spiritual beliefs were 2.3 times more likely (CI 1.1-5.1, p=.03, n=144) to remain the same or deteriorate clinically nine months later. Other predictors of four outcome war mail gender and sleep disturbance on admission to hospital. Concluded that stronger spiritual belief is an independent predictor of poor outcome at nine months post discharge among patients admitted to two acute services on a London hospital. The effect was greater than physical state assessed by clinicians or self-reported psychological state on admission. Highly selective in their analyses. Negative study.
King, M.B., & Hunt, R.A. (1972). Measuring the religious variable: replication. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 11, 240-251. (C/S survey involving a 132-item questionnaire (91 religious belief, knowledge, and practice items was administered to members of four Protestant denominations in Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area; a systematic sample was drawn in each congregation of members age 16 or over (n=1356); also assessed was a 9-item prejudice scale, an 8-item Intolerance of Ambiguity scale, and a 10-item Purpose in Life Scale; factor analysis used (varimax, eigen values > 1.0, 2 or more items loading at .30 or higher) to identify 19 factors; 15 of these factors "made sense" based on content validity; these were subject to an item-scale analysis based on a covariance matrix, yielding 10 factors which are presented here (required to have Cronbach alpha of 0.75 or higher): (1) 7-item creedal assent or doctrinal orthodoxy, (2) 5-item devotionalism or personal prayer/communication with God, (3) 3-item church attendance (congregational involvement), (4) 6-item organizational religious activity (congregational involvement), (5) 5-item financial support (congregational involvement), (6) 8-item religious knowledge, (7) 6-item growth and striving (religious orientation), (8) 7-item extrinsic scale (religious orientation), (9) 7-item behavioral scale (salience), and (10) 5-item cognitive scale (salience) (paper gives all of 59 items)
King, M.B., & Hunt, R.A. (1975). Measuring the religious variable: national replication. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 14, 13-22. (questionnaire contained 98 items, including 61 items from 8 basic religious scales from earlier study (minus religious knowledge and extrinsic scales) plus Allport-Feagin "intrinsic" items; administered to a Presbyterian panel composed of 1990 lay persons, who were a stratified random representative sample of this denomination nation-wide; the factor analysis procedure performed in study above was repeated; 21 factors were found the scales developed for the Texans in the earlier study are almost identical with those for the nation-wide sample in this study; came up with 10 scales (slightly different from earlier 10 scales): creedal assent, devotionalism, church attendance, organizational activity, financial support, growth & striving, religious despair, salience (behavior), salience (cognition), and active regulars); almost all scales positively related to intolerance of ambiguity, and positively related to positive purpose in life) (paper gives the revised scales)
King, M.B., Dein, S. (1998). The spiritual variable in psychiatric research. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1259-1262.
King, S.R., Hampton, W.R., Bernstein, B., & Schichor, A. (1996). College students' views on suicide. Journal of American College of Health, 44, 283-287. (C/S survey of 511 introductory psychology students at UConn (62% were 18 or under, and 88% white); for those with lack of religious affiliation and attendance (at least once/year), acceptability of suicide more likely for family stress (self 19.3% vs 8.9%, p<.01, and others 22.0% vs 13.8%, p<.05), chronic illness (self 35.2% vs 18.7%, p<.001, and others 46.3% vs 33.3%, p<.05), and terminal illness (self 73.2% vs 51.7%, p<.001, and others 83.3% vs 68.5%, p<.01) (but no difference for financial distress, job difficulties, school problems or depression); for attempted suicide (n=34) vs. not (n=474), the former were more likely to be unaffiliated/nonattenders (p<.01), and were more likely to believe that suicide was ever acceptable (p<.001); all uncontrolled analyses)
King, V., & Elder, G. H. (1999). Are religious grandparents more involved grandparents? Journal of Gerontology (social sciences), 54B, S317-S328. (Examined a sample of fine 85 grandparents from two related studies of rural families, the Iowa Youth and Families Project and the Iowa Single Parent Project; multiple covariates were considered including demographic factors, health, community involvement, traditional values, ties to others, etc.; the results indicated that religious grandparents are more involved grandparents and this involvement is explained in part by their greater involvement in all types of family and social ties--religious grandparents are more likely to have greater social ties to others)
Kinsey, A.C., Pomeroy, W.B., & Martin, C.E. (1953). Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Philadelphia: Saunders. Cross-sectional survey of 5940 cases of white, non-prison-dwelling females surveyed prior to January 1, 1950; found that the frequency of premarital sex was distinctly higher among women who were less actively connected with religious groups, and was lower among those who were most devout. This was true for Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. Likewise extra-marital sex was significantly lower among the more religiously devout. Homosexual contacts were likewise less frequent among the more religiously devout. Overall there was less sexual activity among single women who were more devout compared with the religiously inactive. Among married women, the likelihood of having sex to orgasm was about the same, regardless of religious group, or devoutness of religion.
Kirk, A., & Zucker, R. (1979). Some sociological facrtors in attempted suicide among urban black males. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 9(2), 76-86.
Kirk, K. M., Eaves, L. J., Martin, NG (1999). Self-transcendence as a measure of spirituality in a sample of older Australian twins. Twin Research, 2, 81-87. (Self-transcendence was unrelated to any measure of psychological or physical health. Additive genetic effects were found to be important in influencing self-transcendence, with heritability estimates of 0.37 and 0.41 for men and women respectively, while shared environment effects were not found to be significant. Multivariate modeling of self transcendence scores and self-reported church attendance behavior indicated substantially different etiologies for these variables.)
Kirk, K. M., Maes, H. H., Neale, MC, Heath, AC, Martin, N. G., Eaves, L. J. (1999). Frequency of church attendance in Australia and the United States: models of family resemblance. Twin Research, 2,99-107. (Sample consisted of separate cohorts of twins and their families from the United States an Australia (29,063 and 20,714 individuals from 5670 and 5615 families, respectively). Both samples indicated significant additive genetic and shared environment effects on church attendance, with minor contributions from twin environment, assortative mating, and parent-offspring environmental transmission. There was smaller shared environment effects observed for both women and men in the U.S. cohort.
*[Kirkpatrick, C. (1949). Religion and Humanism: A study of institutional implications. Psychological Monographs, 63__ (found low and primarily negative correlation between religiousness and humanitarianism)
Kirkpatrick, LA, Hood RW (1990). Intrinsic-extrinsic religious orientation: The boon or bane of contemporary psychology of religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29, 442-462. This review article critiques the use of intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation in over 70 studies since Allport & Ross first introduced the scale and theoretical construct in 1967. This makes it one of the most frequently used measures of religiousness. It is unclear if "religious orientation" has to do with motivation, personality, or cognitive style, and the term needs a more precise definition. "The Intrinsic dimension appears to be poorly defined both conceptually and empirically, but in the end, it seems to measure...'religious commitment.'" (p.448). The Extrinsic dimension appears to measure "selfish motivation for religious involvement" (p. 448). In relationship to each other, I & E appear to measure "quite independent dimensions, and they are not the dimensions Allport proposed." (p. 453). I is empirically correlated to other measures of religious belief (indicating concurrent validity) but not empirically correlated with other psychological variables. On the other hand, E shows little empirical correlation with other variables measuring religiousness, but it does show relation to variables such as dogmatism, prejudice, and trait anxiety. There are also issues raised by the authors that I and E variables on this scale may be value-laden or that the attempts to keep the scale free from specific belief system content may weaken or mislead the results of any studies using the scale. For example, research has shown I to be uncorrelated with racial prejudice, but "more recent research has shown I to be positively correlated with certain other kinds of prejudice, such as discrimination against homosexuals (Herek, 1987; McFarland, 1989) and Communists (McFarland, 1989)."(p. 458). The authors recommend reconceptu-alizing the approach to the psychology of religion.
Kirkpatrick, L.A., & Shaver, P.R. (1990). Attachment theory and religion: childhood attachments, religious beliefs, and conversion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29, 315-334. (C/S survey of 213 newspaper ad respondents (85% women); Allport & Ross IE scale; also asked about sudden intense religious conversion vs. more gradual forms; believe in personal God; personal relationship with God or Jesus Christ; loving and controlling God images; religious attendance; and others; maternal religiosity was more likely to be related to subjects' loving God image, higher intrinsic religiosity, higher religious attendance, whether considered self a Christian, whether Born Again, believed in a personal God, and had a personal relationship with God (bivariate), among those with secure attachment; among persons with strongly religious mothers, religiousness was unrelated to attachment style; for those raised by low religious mothers, religious variables -- especially personal relationship with God and belief in a personal God -- were greatest among those with avoidant attachment styles; sudden religious conversion was also most likely for the entire group when maternal attachment styles were avoidant (cold, distant, rejecting, unresponsive), than if secure or anxious/ambivalent (44% vs. 9% vs. 8%, p<.01); concluded that attachment to God serves as substitute attachment for those with insecure maternal attachment)
Kirkpatrick, L.A., & Shaver, P.R. (1992). An attachment-theoretical approach to romantic love and religious belief. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 266-275. (C/S survey of 213 respondents to a newspaper survey on love completed a follow-up mail survey that included religious beliefs and family background (85% women, 98% white, mean age 40); multiple regression revealed that beliefs about God and having a personal relationship with God can be predicted by an interaction between childhood attachment class and parental religiousness; respondents who classified their childhood relationships with their mothers as avoidant (caregiver appears to serve neither as a secure base nor as a haven, and infant is not at all confident of mother's availability or responsiveness and expects his/her proximity-maintaining efforts to be rebuffed), were more religious as adults by several measures, although this was true only when parents were reported as having been relatively non-religious; persons in avoidant category also more likely to have sudden religious conversions during adolescence and adulthood; results that God may function in a compensatory role, serving as a substitute attachment figure)
Kirov, G., Kemp, R., Kirov, K., and David, A.S. (1998). Relgious Faith after Psychotic Illness. Psychopathology, 31(0):234-245. C/S study of 52 long-term (mean term=9.7 years) psychiatric patients from inner-city London. Mean age 35, 50% male, 59% non-white, 85% unemployed, 55% living alone, 10% married. Compliance with medication, general mental state, insight assessed through structured questions, religiousness through open-ended questioning. 18% not religious at all, 12% weakly religious, 69% subjectively religious (=prayed in private at least once a week). Retrospective accounts of changes in religiosity after onset: 65% say no change; 30% increase; 5% decrease. 61% used religion "to stay mentally healthy or get better" (the authors' coping definition). Patients using religion to cope had better insight into their illness and were more compliant with antipsychotic medication. Religious beliefs were commonly used to cope with the illness. Social support (marriage, # of adults in household, employment) not related to religiousness.
Kirschling, J.M., & Pittman, J.F. (1989). Measurement of spiritual well-being: a hospice caregiver sample. Hospice Journal, 5, 1-11. (C/S survey of 70 family members caring for a terminally ill relative (from 5 hospice programs in two northwestern states) (mean age 62; 20-item Paloutzian-Ellison SWB scale and Bradburn's Affect Balance scale were administered, along with Jalowiec's Coping Scale, Archbold & Stewart's caregiving measures, and Duke-UNC health profile; several persons (n=6) did not complete SWB scales because not religious or didn't believe in God; SWB scale and subscales were all related to positive and negative affect in the expected directions, but none of the associations were significant except between negative affect and existential WB (-.38, p<.001) (negative study)
Kivett, V.R. (1979). Religious motivation in middle age: correlates and implications. Journal of Gerontology, 34, 106-115. (C/S survey of 301 persons aged 45-65 who attended church school classes at 22 United Methodist churches in North Carolina (22 churches were randomly selected and all members of church school class were interviewed) (mean age 54, mean education 13, 52% women 88% white); Hoge IR scale, self-rated health (1 item - 4 levels), self-concept measured by semantic differential scale, along with education and occupation; Rotter's IE LOC scale used; multiple regression used to examine predictors of Intrinsic Religiosity, finding that sex (females), those with a lower ideal self-concept, and with an internal locus of control (beta .14, p<.05, were more likely to score high on IR); when locus of control is the dependent variable, even more total variance explained in the equation (r-square=.19 vs .13 in the present study)
*[Kleiner, R.J., Tuchman, J., & Lavell, M. (1959). Mental disorder and status based on religious affiliation. Human Relationships, 12, 273-276.] (more religious less anxious)
Kloos, B., Horneffer, K., & Moore, T. (1995). Before the beginning: Religious leaders' perceptions of the possibility for mutual beneficial collaboration with psychologists. Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 275-291. 18 in-depth interviews (16 male, 2 female) were conducted with religious leaders from diverse denominations in the central Illinois & Minneapolis/St. Paul areas. The authors determined three factors influential to religious leaders' interest in collaborating with community psychologists. They are: a common interest in in/outreach, familiarity with a university setting, and positive perceptions of psychologists as collaborators (or consultants, when necessary). With this naturalistic information, generalizations are difficult to make.
Knekt, P., Raitasaio, R., & Heliovaara, M. (1996). Elevated lung cancer risk among persons with depressed mood. American Journal of Epidemiology, 144, 1096-1103 (examined the hypothesis that depressive persons experience and excessive risk of cancer; in the nationally representative Finland Health Survey, 7,018 adult men and women free from cancer and baseline were assessed over at a 14 year follow-up ; 605 cases of cancer were diagnosed of which 70 were male lung cancer patients ; the relative risk of lung cancer between depressive persons and those with out depression was 3.32 (95 percent confidence interval 1.53 -- 7.20); adjusting for other risk factors did not alter the results; among smokers with high depressive scores the risk of long cancer was 19.7, compared to a risk of 3.4 of lung cancer among smokers who were not depressed; in emotions such as depression, anxiety, and anger have been linked to chronic disease)
Knight, James A. (1964). A Psychiatrist Looks at Religion and Health. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Overall, this book is an opinion piece about how psychiatrists may serve an important role alongside church leaders in understanding the inner life of patients and how they assign meaning to their lives. He believes there can be a partnership between psychiatrists and church leaders to the healing benefit of patients. "Present-day psychiatry has made it impossible to think in terms of a dualistic approach to health and illness but rather has considered it essential that health and illness be seen in such a way that body, mind, and spirit, as well as interpersonal relationships, are all involved at all times. Thus religion can never be attacked as being irrelevant to health and illness." (p.189). Because it is the thoughts, emotions and beliefs (the inner life -- including the spiritual) with which a person defines meaning to life events and that psychiatry studies, the author sees a relationship with the religious meanings people determine for themselves. These meanings often determine the mental health status of the patient (see Jung, Fromm and Frankl's writings/ theories). Chapters 4 & 5 discuss Freud's and Jung's views on religion, the unconscious, and contributions to psychiatry in these areas, noting they both spent much time studying and writing about religion. No clinical studies are offered or analyzed. A couple of clinical cases are described (Chaps. 8 and 9). However, the chapter on suicide (Chap. 7) hardly mentions religion as a factor. Where Part 1 describes why the author thinks mental health has an important spiritual component of which the psychiatrist should be aware, Part 4 describes how the psychiatrist can work alongside church leaders for their mutual benefit and the greater benefit of the patient's health. He revives the ideas that health is related to our understandings of sin, repentance, forgiveness and grace and argues that this is true for mental health just as it istrue for physical health. The strongest value of this book is its context as being written in the early 60s when it would have been unusual to consider the relationship between psychiatry and religious beliefs.
Knudten, R.D., & Knudten, M.S. (1971). Juvenile delinquency, crime, and religion. Review of Religious Research, 12, 130-152. (review - with conservative conclusions - more research is needed; data is not at the scientific "proof" level)
Knupfer, G., & Room, R. (1967). Drinking patterns and attitudes of Irish, Jewish, and white Protestant American men. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 28, 676-699. (C/S mailed questionnaire of 1,212 persons with Irish or Jewish names identified systematically in a 1962 Oakland telephone directory, 58% response rate, in SF Bay area; Irish Catholics drink more than white Protestants, who drink more than Jews (36% vs 26% vs 18% drinking nearly every day); more orthodox Jews less likely to drink that non-affiliated Jews; Jews also less likely to approve drinking or condone intoxication)
Kolin, I.S., Scherzer, A.L., New, B., & Garfield, M. (1971). Studies of the school-age child with meningomyelocele: Social and emotional adaptation. Journal of Pediatrics, 78(6), 1013-1019. Studying 13 children diagnosed with meningomyelocele in New York City and lower New York, the authors indicate religious feeling was more intense in better-adapted parents (p. 1017), but no statistics are used to illustrate this statement. It is also stated that nearly all of the 13 children identified a wish to be a helping professional and that this wish in the child "is parallel to religion in the parent." (p. 1018)
Kong, B.W., Miller, J.M., & Smoot, R.T. (1982). Churches as high blood pressure control centers. Journal of the National Medical Association, 74, 920-923. (reports the initial experiences creating high blood pressure control centers within churches; this program is a way of reaching a relatively resistant group of individuals, especially among younger black men in whom the HTN control rate is only 30%; elderly Black women, however, are most likely to attend church so this is a particularly important target, who can then mobilize relatives and friends to get younger black males into treatment)
Koopman, C., Sephton, S., Schaal, M., Thoresen, C., Spiegel, D. (1998). Factors associated with religiosity among women with advanced breast cancer (manuscript in preparation) (study examined association of religious practices with immune function in 112 women with metastatic breast cancer; mean age of subjects was 53 years and they had been living with metastatic breast cancer warned average of two years. Salivary cortisol levels were assessed several times per day over a three day period; results indicated that women with greater religious practices had lower cortisol levels measured at 5 p.m. (-.22, p=.01)
Kosmin, B. A., & Lachman, SP (1993). One Nation under God. New York, New York: Harmony Books (important statistics on religious commitment among African-Americans and whites in the United States. Also information on Hispanics and their activities in United States. Finally information about non- Christian groups in America including Judaism and Islam, as well as those who characterize themselves as non-religious.
Koss, J.D. (1987). Expectations and outcomes for patients given mental health care or spiritist healing in Puerto Rico. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 56-61. (C/S survey that compares treatment in a Community Mental Health Center (CMHC) with the healing practices of a spiritist; detailed information on personal and social charactersitics, patient caseloads, treatment practices, and attitudes and beliefs about each treatment system collected from 47 therapists and 49 spiritist practitioners, and also for 46 CMHC patients and 54 spiritist patients; presenting complaints of spiritist patients are less often for mood or feeling problems, complaints that are more often handled by CMHC therapist; spiritist patients had greater expectations and more positive reports of outcome; when expectations and outcomes were compared between two patient groups, however, few differences were observed)
Kotarba, J.A. (1983). Perceptions of death, belief systems and the process of coping with chronic pain. Social Science and Medicine, 17, 681-689. (CS conv sample of 110 laypersons and health care workers were interviewed; ehtnographic observation in natural settings where chronic pain was a primary topic of interaction (chronic pain centers, etc.; surveys various religious, philosophical and mystical belief systems and their empirical use as resources for meaning) (qualitative)
Kowey, P.R., Friehling, T.D., & Marinchak, R.A. (1986). Prayer-meeting cardioversion. Annals of Internal Medicine, 104, 727-728. (case) (conversion of atrial fibrillation; on morning before planned electrical cardioversion, patient summoned her daughters and a Baptist minister and a prayer meeting was held in the patient's hospital room; after direct supplication that "this evil rhythm leave her body," a nurse with a direct view of the cardiac monitor reported that at that moment, patient reverted to normal sinus rhythm; atrial fibrillation did not recur)
Kraft, W.A., Litwin, W.J., & Barber, S.E. (1986). Religious orientation and assertiveness: Relationship to death anxiety. Journal of Social Psychology, 127, 93-95. (C/S survey of 107 undergraduate volunteers from introductory psychology class at large southwestern university (Louisiana State); administered two standard death anxiety scales, Feagin's IE religiosity scale, Bardis' Religion Scale, an Assertiveness Schedule, and College Self-Expression Scale; found relationship between intrinsic religiosity and anxiety related to death of self (-.30, p<.01), death of others (-.25, p<.01, and total death anxiety (-.30, p<.001); inverse relationships found between positive attitudes toward religious faith (Bardis' scale) and self (-.17, p<.05), other (-.21, p<.05), and total death anxiety (-.19, p<.05); extrinsic religiousness was positively related to total death anxiety (.42, p<.001) and its subscales, as well as to death anxiety related to global life experience (.34, p<.001) (no control variables)
Kranitz, L., Abrahams, J., Spiegel, D., Keith-Spiegel, P. (1968). Religious beliefs of suicidal patients. Psychological Reports, 22, 936. (case-control study of 20 hospitalized neuropsychiatric patients who had made at least one suicide attempted (currently under observation for suicidal behavior) and 20 patients with no known suicidal ideation or behavior (at Brentwood VAMC in Los Angeles); case were asked 14 questions about their religious beliefs and activities; chi-square tests revealed no significant differences between groups) (no controls) (negative study)
Krause, N. (1986). Stress and coping: Reconceptualizing the role of locus of control beliefs. Journal of Gerontology, 41, 617-622. (C/S survey of a probability community sample of 351 adults aged 65 or older living in Galveston, Texas (66% female, mean age 73, 64% white, 27% Black, 7% Hispanic); CESD-D depression and checklist of SLE's were administered, along with Rotter LOC I-E scale, Crowne-Marlowe SDS, and an Acquiescence scale (to assess tendency to agree with survey items regardless of their content); found that older adults with extreme internal mastery control beliefs are especially vulnerable to the deleterious effects of negative stressful events; such beliefs may have positive effects because they promote stress avoidance, but they also have negative effects because they lead to ineffective coping actions with those stressors that cannot be avoided) (religion not measured)
Krause, N. (1986). Social support, stress, and well-being among older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 41(4), 512-519. A randomized sample of 332 adults from Texas, aged 65 and older, were interviewed about forms of social support, depressive symptoms, and stressful life events. Social support was measured by a 41-item modified version of the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors (Barrera et al., 1981). Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1975). Stressful life events were measured by a 77-item checklist. "...although social support fails to modify the impact of global stressful events, specific dimensions of social support buffer the effects of specific life event types on psychological well-being." (p.518). High integration, defined as the "embeddedness of an individual in a reciprocal network of shared obligations and ... belonging" (p.514), had a reducing influence (p<.05) on depressed affect for those who faced crisis events within their network (i.e., a family member or friend losing a job or facing illness). This is the only significant result that may be analogous or similar to any religious variables (i.e., Organizational Religious Activities). Support provider may benefit almost as much from giving support as the recipient does from getting it.
Krause, N., & Tran, T.V. (1989). Stress and religious involvement among older Blacks. Journal of Gerontology, 44, S4-S13. (C/S survey of 2,107 adults participating in the National Survey of Black Americans (1979-80); current analyses based on study participants aged 55 or older (n=511); self-esteem measured by a 3-item index, mastery by a 4-item index, SLE by a 10-item checklist; religious involvement by two 3-item scales (ORA and NORA/subjective religiosity); LISREL used to analyze data; the model that best fit the data was a distress-deterrent model; ORA is significantly related to higher self-esteem (.37, p<.001), but not to mastery; NORA is significantly related to greater mastery 0.20, p<.051, but not to self-esteem); SLE's are not related to either ORA or NORA (against the suppressor model); concludes that religious involvement is an important factor in bolstering and maintaining positive self-feelings, but these are additive effects that operate independently the amount of stress experienced)
Krause, N. (1991). Stress, religiosity, and abstinence from alcohol. Psychology and Aging, 6, 134-144. (C/S survey of 1,607 adults aged 60 or over participating in Americans' Changing Lives Survey; uses LISREL to analyze data; 3-item financial difficulty scale, 3-item health problems scale, 1-item church attendance (1-6), 3 item subjective religiosity/private religious activity scale, and 1-item abstinence from alcohol (53% of sample); while church attendance was unrelated to abstinence, subjective/private religiosity was (beta .37, p<.05); there is also an indirect relationship between gender and abstinence (.125), but the bulk of this effect (.108, p<.05) involves the specific path that goes through subjective religiosity; thus a significant part of the gender-abstinence relationship can be attributed to the fact that women have higher levels of subjective religiousness than men do); furthermore, as health difficulties tend to worsen, subjective religiousness increases (beta=.09, p<.05); thus, health problems reduce drinking at least in part by an indirect effect through religiosity (beta .029, p<.05); financial difficultieshave an inverse relationship with abstinence, and some of this effect is an indirect effect due to its inverse relationship with subjective religiosity (-.062, p<.05))
Krause, N. (1991). Stressful events and life satisfaction among elderly men and women. Journal of Gerontology, 46, S84-S92. (C/S survey of national random sample of 805 persons aged 60 or over participating in the 1978 Quality of Life Survey conducted by U of Michigan's Survey Research Center (mean age 69; 62% women; 10.4 ave yrs of education); LISREL used to analyze data; illness was measured by a single binary item on whether serious illness/injury in past year, financial loss measured with a single binary item concerning decrease in total family income, satisfaction with health by a two-item indicator, satisfaction with finances by a 4-item index, global life satisfaction by a two-item index; results supported the theory that older adults first assess feelings of satisfaction with specific life domains that are based in part on their experiences (stressors) in each of those areas, a based on those domain-specific assessments, come to a global assessment of their satisfaction with life as a whole) (religion not assessed)
Krause, N. (1992). Stress, religiosity, and psychological well-being among older blacks. Journal of Aging and Health, 4, 412-439. (C/S survey of 448 older Blacks (over age 60) participating in the American Changing Lives Survey (mean age 70, 63% women, average education level is 8.6 years); LISREL used to analyze data; physical health problems measured by 3-items, religiosity by subjective religiosity/personal religious activity (3-items) and by church attendance (1-item), received emotional support by 2 items, personal control by 2-items, self-esteem by 2 items, and depressed affect by 3 items; subjective religiosity was significantly related to emotional support (beta=.31, p<.01) and to self-esteem (beta=.26, p<.05), but not to personal control or to depressed affect; church attendance unrelated to any of four outcomes; family deaths are unrelated to either attendance or subjective religiosity; church attendance is inversely related to physical health problems (-.17, p<.01), but subjective religiosity is unrelated to health problems; concluded that subjective religiosity affects psychological well-being among elderly Blacks primarily by bolstering feelings of self-worth)
Krause, N., Herzog, A.R., & Baker, E. (1992). Providing support to others and well-being in later life. Journal of Gerontology, 47, 300-311. (assessed whether giving support to others within informal as well as formal settings might also benefit older help-providers; using data from a recent nation-wide survey of the elderly indicates that giving informal assistance to others may bolster feelings of personal control in later life; greater feelings of personal control, in turn, are related to lower levels of depression (application)
Krause, N. (1993). Measuring religiosity in later life. Research on Aging, 15, 170-197. (devise and test a multidimensional measurement model of late-life religiosity using LISREL: organizational religiosity, subjective religiosity, and religious beliefs (3 dimensions: man's relationship to God, Man's relationship to man, and belief in Devil); C/S survey of 709 respondents from World Values Survey involving a probability sample of persons residing in 22 countries, but only data from Canada and the United States used in this study (mean age 67, 59% from U.S.); assessed organizational religiosity with 3 items, subjective religiosity with 3 items, belief with 12 items, and life satisfaction with 3 items; found that the relationship between the second order religiosity factor (global religious orientation based on 5 religious dimensions) and life satisfaction was significant (Beta=0.163, p<.01), but 38% lower than the relationship between subjective religiosity and life satisfaction (Beta=.261, p<.05); suggests that researchers should examine religious dimensions in disaggregated as well as aggregated forms)
Krause, N. (1995). Religiosity and self-esteem among older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 50, P236-P246. (C/S survey of national probability sample of 1,005 persons (60% women, mean age 74; 3-item organizational religiosity, 2-item non-organizational religiosity, and 3-item religious coping measure; number of chronic health conditions, 3-item family support and 3-item friend support items, education, age, sex; SE measured by 4-item scale; regression analysis demonstrated that religious coping was significantly related to self-esteem (beta .10, p<.01); self-esteem was highest among those with highest religious coping (SE ave 18.6) and those with the lowest use of coping (SE ave 18.5); concluded that religious coping is related to self-esteem in a non-linear manner; elderly with very low or absence religious coping have high self-esteem (due primarily to higher education levels), whereas for those with low-moderate religious coping there is no relationship with self-esteem; with increasing levels of subsequent religious coping, however, self-esteem goes up rapidly, so that those with the highest esteem are those with the highest religious coping)
Krause, N. (1996). Embedding measures of religion in later studies on health : The SWAN project as a case study. Fetzer Institute and National Institute on Aging. July 22-23, Kalamazoo, Michigan
Krause, N. (1997). Religion, aging, and health: Current status and future prospects. Journal of Gerontology, 52B, S291-S293. (discusses challenges facing basic as well as applied researchers, "As we stand poised on a new era of research on religion...") (Q)
Krause, N. (1998). Neighborhood deterioration, religious coping, and changes in health during late life. The Gerontologist, 38,653-664. (4-year prospective study of national random sample of 1103 persons aged 65 or over in United States; at Wave 2, 511 elders were re-evaluated; baseline disability level and baseline self-rated health were controlled in a multi-variate analysis which predicted disability level and self-rated health 4 years later. Global self rated physical health status based on three items; functional disability based on 14 items; religious variables included religious coping (3 items), organizational religiosity (3 items), and non-organizational religiosity (2 items). All religious measures assessed at Time 2 (making it largely a cross-sectional analysis). Organizational religiosity was inversely related to poor global self-rated health status (beta=-.10, p<.01), but unrelated to nonorganizational religiosity or religious coping. There was also a significant interaction between religious coping and neighborhood deterioration (b=-.026, p<.005), suggesting that the negative impact of living in a dilapidated neighborhood on changes in self rated health overtime was completely offset for older adults who relied heavily on religious coping strategies. No association or interaction was significant for functional disability.
Krause, N. (1998). Stressors in highly valued roles, religious coping, and mortality. Psychology and Aging, 13, 242-255. (Hypothesized that religious coping would offset the effects of stressors arising in highly valued roles (stressors in salient roles) on mortality; similar stress buffering effects would not occur for less important roles (stressors in non-salient roles). Also hypothesized that the beneficial effects of religious coping would be present especially strong among older adults with less education. Sample included a national probability sample of the 19 older adults. Results indicate that religious coping offsets the effects of stressors in highly valued roles on mortality but only among older adults with less educational attainment. Religious durables included religious coping (three items), organizations or religiosity (three items), nonorganizational religiosity (two items). Mortality was informant report of deaths from all causes (from 1992 through 1997). Self rated health and functional disability were covariates along with age, sex, and marital status. Logistic regression, including two and three-way interactions. Results indicated that organizations religiosity was inversely related to mortality (odds ratio 0.88 (95% CI 0.79-0.98, p<.05); religious coping, however, was positively related with greater mortality (odds ratio 1.15,95% CI 1.02-1.29, p<.05); there was an interaction between religious coping and salient roles stress, such that among those with salient roles stress, effects on mortality for religious coping were inverse (odds ratio 0.94,95% CI 0.88-0.996,p<.05). Among less educated older adults (< 10 years of education), stressors in highly valued social roles are associated with a 70 percent increase in the odds of dying for those who do not rely heavily on religious coping strategies (OR 1.706).
Krause, N., Ellison, C. G., Wulff, K. M (1998). Church-based emotional support, negative interaction, and psychological well-being: findings from a national sample of Presbyterians. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37,725-741. Cross-sectional surveyed above 3168 clergy, elders, and rank-and-file members of the Presbyterian Church USA (1362 clergy, 950 elders, 856 rank-and-file church members). Single item indicators for positive affect, negative affect, negative interaction in the church, and emotional support in the church. Findings indicate that the effects of emotional support and negative interaction on well-being are greater for clergy and elders than for rank-and-file members. No examination of the relationship between religion and health in this study.
Kroll, J., & Sheehan, W. (1989). Religious beliefs and practices among 52 psychiatric inpatients in Minnesota. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 67-72. (C/S survey of 52 of 54 psychiatric patients on the locked inpatient ward at University of Minnesota Hospital in Minneapolis; data on religious beliefs (8), practices (8), and experiences (10) were obtained; belief in major tenets of faith (God, the Devil, afterlife) were high and similar to the general population; patients with depressive and anxiety disorders tended to score lower than those with other diagnoses on indexes of religion; concluded that "religion is an important factor in most patients' lives and that individual inquiry and systematic research into this neglected area are both feasible and important" (p 67))
Krull, C., & Trovato, F. (1994). The quiet revolution and the sex differential in Quebec's suicide rates: 1931-1986. Social Forces, 72(4), 1121-1147.
Krupinski, J. (1966). Attempted suicides admitted to the mental health department, Victoria, Australia: A socio-epidemiological study. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 13, 5-13. (case-control study of 204 male and 154 female suicide attempters admitted to the Victorian Mental Health Department; compared to general Victorian population, the proportion of Catholic women among suicide attempters was higher (39.3% vs 25.7%, p<.01); explained as being due to the high proportion of Catholic migrants in the non-British migrant group where the rates of depressive illness are the highest)
Kubacka-Jasiecka, d., Dorczak, R., & Opozzynska, M. (1990). the role of religious values in functioning and mental health of people. Presented at the International Conference on Religion and Mental Health, Jagiellonean University, Kracow, Warsaw (don't have it) (30 undergraduates reporting having to cope with a stressful situation; two-thirds spontaneously mentioned religion or religious values as a way they coped with stressor)
Kuemmerer, J.M., & Comstock, G.W. (1967). Sociologic concomitants of tuberculin sensitivity. American Review of Respiratory Diseases, 96, 885-892. (population-based sample of 7,787 junior and high school students in Washington County, MD; 4% had positive tests 105 with large reactions and 197 with small reactions); these were compared with a random sample of 414 non-reactors from the sample; "The frequency of large reactions was somewhat greater among children whose parents attended church less than once/month than among those whose parents went to church more often." (p 888); no statistics presented, though association was apparently significant; no controls) (R-5)
Kuhn, C.C. (1988). A spiritual inventory of the medically ill patient. Psychiatric Medicine, 6, 87-100.] (examines the usefulness of obtaining a spiritual or religious history, and examples of questions to obtain such a history) (application)
Kulka, R.A., Veroff, J., & Douvan, E. (1979). Social class and the use of professional help for personal problems: 1957 and 1976. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 20, 2-17. (among people who used professional help, in 1957, 43% saw a clergyman, 30% a physician, 18% a psychiatrist or psychologist, 4% a marriage counselor, 10% another mental health source, and 3% a social service agency); in 1976, 39% saw a clergyman, 21% a doctor, 29% a psychiatrist or psychologist, 8% a marital counselor, and 18% another mental health source); among all respondents, 6% saw a clergyman for help in 1957 and 10% did so in 1976 (use of clergy)
Kulkarni SO, Farrell I, Erasi M, Kochar MS. (1998). Stress and hypertension. Western Medical Journal 97(11), 34-38. (discussion and review).
Kumanyika, S.K., & Charleston, J.B. (1992). Lose weight and win: A church-based weight loss program for blood pressure control among Black women. Patient Education and Counseling, 19, 19-32. (describes results of Baltimore Church High Blood Pressure Program, which offers behaviorally oriented weight control program of 8 weekly 2-h counseling/exercise sessions; pre and post-program weight and BP measurements done for 185 black and 3 white women (88 taking antihypertensives and 99 were not); mean weight loss was 6 lbs in both Rx and non-Rx group; mean BP was reduced by 10/6 mmHg in Rx group and 5/3 mmHg in no-Rx group (p<.01 for all pre-post comparisons); final SBP was <140 mmHg in 74% vs 52% initially and DBP was <90 mmHg in 92% vs 65% initially; 6 month follow-up of 74/187 women revealed that weight loss during program was maintained or exceed in 65%)
Kune, CA., Kune, S., Watson, L.F., & Bahnson, C.B. (1991). Personality as risk factor in large-bowel cancer. Psychological Medicine, 21, 29-41. (religious affiliation (Jewish, etc.) did not influence the risk of colorectal cancer, although adult or childhood "unhappiness" did, as did those exhibiting a personality style that denies or represses anger or other negative emotions, is committed to the prevailing social norms resulting in the external appearance of "nice" or "good" person, a supression of reactions which may offend others and avoidance of conflict) -- HK Cases were all histologically confirmed cases of colorectal adeno carcinoma diagnosed in Melbourne from 4/21/80 - 4/20/81 in Melbourne Statistical Division. Controls also chose from Melbourne area. Both given questionnaires assessing demographic, health habit and psychosocial (loss, happiness, "cancer personality" and expression of denial vs. anger) characteristics. Ended up with 637 cases (346Males; 291 Female) and 714 controls (391 Male and 323 Female). Mean age for both groups was 65 years (SD= 11 yrs. for both). Highly statistically significant difference between cases and control for the statements testing conformity, repression/denial, suppression, low anxiety and conflict avoidance (T=2.95, p< 0.05). Highly statistically significant difference in the anger questions (T= 5.34, p .001) supporting the hypothesis that repression, denial, and non-expression of anger is a risk for colorectal cancer. Highly statistically significant difference on overall "cancer personality" questions between cases and controls (T=5.71, p .001). Only gender effect was that denial of anger was more pronounced for women (x2 =8, p = 0.05). Looked at possible confounds such as diet, beer, family history, SES, marital status and religion and determined the cancer personality question scores were independent of such confounds. -- TB
Kune, G., Kune, S., & Watson, L. (1992). The effect of family history of cancer, religion, parity and migrant status on survival in colorectal cancer. European Journal of Cancer, 28A, 1484-1487. (predictors of 5-year survival of 705 of 1140 newly diagnosed colorectal CAs in Melbourne, Australia; Jewish religion vs. other affiliation did not impact on survival (Cox PH regression); only age, CA site, and cell differentiation were predictors (R 4) -- HGK. All histologically confirmed new cases of colorectal adenocarcinoma diagnosed from 4/21/80 - 4/20/81 in Melbourne, Australia. 1140 cases in incidence study, 705 included in this study. Factors examined were traditional survival determinants (Duke classification A-D) and Risk factors (migrant status, religion, family history of cancer). Effect of covariates were examined using the Cox proportional hazards regression method for stages A, B, and C together. For stages A, B, And C combined, the factors which statistically affected survival were age (p=.05), site (colon vs. rectum) (p=.01), and cell differentiation (p=.01). None of the other factors - sex, migrant status, family history, number of children, or age at birth of first child were statistically significantly associated with survival in the combined analysis of Duke's stages A, B, and C. Religion (defined as Jewish religion vs. other) had no influence on survival, although previous research showed that Jews had 2-fold risk. -- TB
Kunz, P.R., & Albrecht, S.L. (1977). Religion, marital happiness, and divorce. International Journal of Sociology of the Family, 7, 227-232. (C/S of a random statewide sample of 803 married couples in Utah; church attendance was religious variable measured; 3 indicators of marital stability and happiness were used: marital status, whether or not they would choose to marry the same person if they had it over to do again, and frequency of agreement or disagreement over eight roles; persons who attended church regularly were significantly more likely to be on their first marriages (83% vs. 65% for non-attenders, p<.001); significantly more likely to choose to marry the same person