Past Research
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Saba, G.W. (1999). What do family physicians believe and value in their work? Journal of the American Board of Family Practice, 12, 206-213. (Based on qualitative conversations with 143 family practice residents over 13 years. Performed in family practice residency at San Francisco General Hospital. Importance of a philosophical or spiritual framework was emphasized. 85% explained their desire to become a position was rooted in a sense of mission were calling: "I felt my purpose in life, that God's plan for me, was to become a doctor and help people." 63% described their beliefs and values as reflecting formal philosophic or religious traditions.
Sack, A.R., Keller, J.F., & Hinkle, D.E. (1984). Premarital sexual intercourse: A test of the effects of peer group, religisoity, and sexual guilt. Journal of Sex Research, 20, 168-185. (C/S survey of 264 male and 255 feamle undergraduate students (1/7 in student directory, 43% response) at a large mid-Atlantic land-grant university; frequency of premarital intercourse among friends (peer behavior), feelings of friends toward person if he/she had sexual intercourse (peer approval), sexual intervous (coitus), and sex guilt (Mosher index); 6-item measure of conventional religiosity used (Schulz et al 1977) concerning religious attitudes; religiosity inversely related topper approval (-.26), peer behavior (-.22), and coitus (-.22) among women, and inversely related to peer approval (-.32), peer behavior (-.05), and coitus (-.11) in men; path analysis using regression, showed that among among males, religiosity had a weak overall total positive effect on coitus (beta=.05), operating largely because of an indirect effect through sexual behavior of close friends; because conventionally religious males were more likely to have close friends who were sexually active (which strongly correlated with coitus); among women, conventional religiosity had an overall weak total positive effect on coitus (beta=.04); concluded that the total effect of conventional religiousness was minimal; no p values given for any of the statistical tests or betas.
*[Sackett, D.L. (1991). Clinical Epidemiology. Little, Brown, & Co.] (book -- Medical Center Stacks, call number WA950 Sa14c)
Sackett, D.L. (1997). Evidence Based Medicine (Medical Center Stacks -- call number WB102 Ev32)
Sainsbury, P. (1986). The epidemiology of suicide. In A. Roy (Ed.), Suicide (pp. 17-40). Baltimore: Williams and Wilkin.
Saksena, D.N., & Srivastava, J.N. (1980). Biosocial correlates of perinatal mortality: Experiences of an Indian hospital. Journal of Biosocial Science, 12, 69-81. (perinatal mortality among 5,506 births in Lucknow, India, in 1976-1977 was examined (75.9/1000 births, including both stillbirths and early neonatal deaths); perinatal mortality was higher among Muslims than Hindus (95.2/1000 vs 72.6/1000, p<.05, uncontrolled), with differences particularly marked in women under age 25 (99.2/1000 vs 63.4/1000) (no controls)
Salmon, D. A., Haber, M., Gangarosa, E.J., Phillips, L., Smith, N. J., Chen, R. T. (1999). Health consequences of religious and philosophical exemptions from immunization laws: Individual and societal risk of measles. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 47-53. (Objective was to quantify the risk of contracting measles among individuals claiming religious and/or philosophical exemptions from immunization, compared to vaccinated persons. Found that exemptors were 35 times more likely to contract measles than were vaccinated persons. Percent of the national population claiming such exemptions was .44%, with 90% of communities with .21% -- combined religious and/or philosophical exemptions).
Salmons, P.H., & Harrington, R. (1984). Suicidal ideation in university students and other groups. International Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 201-205. 280 university students from England and 149 individuals taken from general practitioner's office completed anonymous survey examining suicidal ideation. Among student group, women showed significantly more suicidal ideation than men (62% vs. 48%, p<.01). Those with a definite religion showed less ideation than those who indicated no religion (57% vs. 50%, p<.05). Positive ideators were more likely to come from overseas (p=.05) as well as severe ideators (had or planned an attempt, p=.01). Only statistically significant findings in general practice group was that married people were less ideated (p=.025).
Salts, C.J., Denham, T.E., & Smith, T.A. (1991). Relationship patterns and role of religion in elderly couples with chronic illness. Journal of Religious Gerontology, 7, 41-54. (Q) (C/S surey of convenience sample of 30 married elderly couples from a southern U.S. community; three categories based on religious activity were formed: no religion (n=1/11 among active couples, 0/5 short-term caregivers, n=2/8 in long-term caregivers, 1/5 survival couples (both ill)), religious activities only (church activities serving as a major source os social interaction outside the home) (n=7/11 of active couples, 0/5 of short-term caregivers, 1/8 of long-term caregivers, 3/5 of survival), and religion used as an important coping resource (n=3/11 among active couples, n=5/5 among short-term caregivers, n=5/8 among long-term caregivers, 1/5 survival); one couple classified as a live-in caregiver couple, and they coped through religion; concluded that "Not only were religious activities and beliefs found to play a vital role in the lives of virtually all the couples, but the role of religion appeared to vary systematically in relation to the various health related patterns observed" (p 51) (no statistics)
Salzman, L. (1953). The psychology of religious and ideological conversion. Psychiatry, 16, 177-187. (Q) (discusses (a) the progressive or maturational type conversion, and (b) the regressive or psychopathological conversion (which the paper focuses on)
Salzman, L. (1965). Healthy and unhealthy patterns of religion. Journal of Religion and Health, 4, 322-326. (Q) (psychodynamically discusses the use of religion and conversion experiences, describing healthy and unhealthy guilt, pathological and normal religious experiences)
Samuel, M., & Sanders, G.F. (1991). The role of churches in the supports and contributions of elderly persons. Activities, Adaptation and Aging, 16(2), 67-79. (CS systematic survey of all churches/ministers of major denominations in North Dakota (Ca, Lu, Meth); 343 of 726 surveys returned and usable; examined church supports and activities designed specifically for the elderly; elderly socal events (42%) and senior clubs (36%) were most common (? emphasis on religion or spirituality ?); 5% had parish nurses; also describes volunteer opportunities for elderly, providing some excellent examples) (descriptive) (R-6)
Sanders, C.M. (1979-1980). A comparison of adult bereavement in the death of a spouse, child, and parent. Omega, 10, 303-322. ( C/S study of 102 persons newly bereaved (experiencing death of a spouse, child, parent) and 107 controls (in whom a parallel analysis was done) (mean age 52 for bereaved); administered MMPI; church attendance among bereaved related to greater optimism, less appetite loss, greater social desirability, but unrelated to other MMPI or Grief Inventory Scale; uncontrolled)
Sanderson, S., Vandenberg, B., Paese, P. (1999). What then take a religious experience or insanity? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 607-616. (In this qualitative study, the authors concluded that the degree to which the experience deviated from conventional religious beliefs and practices determined whether insanity or valid religious experience. The more unconventional the religious behavior, the less religiously authentic and mentally healthy it appeared to be.)
Sansome, R.A., Khatain, K., & Rodenhauser, P. (1990). The role of religion in psychiatric education: A national survey. Academic Psychiatry, 14, 34-38. (C/S survey of 276 American Association of Directors of Psychiatric Residency Training (80% of total); religious ideation of resident is unimportant selection variable (although in 18%, a candidate who expresses strong religious motivation would occassionally or frequently deter the program's interest); only 12% of programs frequently or always had a course on any aspect of religion (in 1988); in 94%, religious issues rarely or never impaired residents' clinical performance)
Sanua, V.D. (1969). Religion, mental health, and personality: A review of empirical studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 1203-1213. (R) (to encourage cooperation between religion and mental health, the Academy of Religion and Mental Health was established in 1957; "The contention that religion as an institution has been instrumental in fostering general well-being, creativity, honesty, liberalism, and other qualities is not supported by empirical data. Both Scott (55) and Godin (22) point out that there are no scientific studies which show that religion is capable of serving mental health" (p 1203)
Sapolsky, R.M. (1992). Stress, the Aging Brain, and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press (don't have) (chronic distress is a factor implicated in almost every disease)
Sapolsky, R.M., Alberts, S.C., & Altman, J. (1997). Hypercortisolism associated with social subordinance or social isolation among wild baboons. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1137-1143. (study of 70 yellow baboons; baboons who had the lowest ranking in the troop had higher post DST cortisol levels (3 times greater) than dominant baboons, and socially isolated males had elevated basal cortisol concentrations and showed trend towards dexamethasone resistence/suppression; social status and degree of social affiliation can influence adrenocortical profiles)
Sarvela, P.D., & McClendon E.J. (1988). Indicators of rural youth drug use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 335-347. (C/S survey of a population-based sample of 265 of 350 7th graders in northern Michigan and northeastern Wisconsin; regression analysis demonstrated that Catholics just as likely as Protestants or "other" classification to use drugs)
Sattler, D.N., Hamby, B.A., Winkler, J.M., & Kaiser, C. (1994). Hurricane Iniki: Psychological functioning following disaster. Presented at the Annual Meetin of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA (don't have) (322 survivors of Hurricane Iniki (7 weeks afterward); women more likely to use religion to cope during and after hurricane, but unrelated to age, marital status, income, or education; religious coping, measured using a 4-item religious coping scale, positively related with more psychological symptoms (.22)) (negative study)
Saucer, P.R. (1992). Evangelical renewal therapy: A proposal for integration of religious values into psychotherapy. Psychological Reports, 69, 1099-1106. (discusses ERT as a method of incorporating religious values in therapy with evangelical Christians) (no data) (Q)
Saudia, T.L., Kinney, M.R., Brown, K.C., & Young-Ward, L. (1991). Health locus of control and helpfulness of prayer. Heart & Lung, 20, 60-65. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 100 patients (out of 129 approached) 1 day prior to cardiac surgery at University of Alabama Medical Center at Birmingham; 87% Protestant, 75% male; asked whether prayer was used to cope prior to surgery and perceived helpfulness of prayer (on scale of 0-15); 95 of 100 patients reported using prayer, and 70 of 100 patients reported rating prayer "extremely helpful" (a score of 15) for coping with surgery, with only 2 subjects indicated less than 10); health locus of control was unrelated to helpfulness of prayer) (no controls)
Sauer, W. J., & Warland, R. (unknown). Morale and life satisfaction, Chapter 5. Book title unknown, pp 195-239 [numerous measures of morality and life satisfaction]
Saunders, E., & Kong, B.W. (1983). A role for churches in hypertension management. Urban Health, 12, 49-51,55. (three-year experience in the establishment and functioning of church-based hypertension programs in ten medium to major size U.S. cities; describes hypertension screening and education programs; gives five good reasons why church-based high BP programs are effective)
Saver, J.L., Rabin, J. (1997). The neural substrates of religious experience. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 9, 498-510.
Scandrett, A. (1994a). Religion as a support component in the health behavior of Black Americans. Journal of Religion and Health, 33, 123-129. (review)
Scandrett, A. (1994b). The Black church as a participant in community health interventions. Journal of Health Education, 25, 183-185. (health promotional activities; targeted at nutrition, AIDS, sexuality, drug use, and mental illness)
Schaefer, C.A., & Gorsuch, R.L. (1991). Psychological adjustment and religiousness: the multivariate belief-motivation theory of religiousness. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 448-461. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 161 undergraduate students at church affiliated colleges in Southern California (from 27 different denominations, mostly Christian); religious motivation measured by I/E-R scales (Gorsuch & McPherson 1989); religious coping by 18-item Religious Problem Solving Scales of Pargament et al (1988), personal beliefs about God (Gorsuch's 1968 adjective checklist); outcomes were IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (ASQ) and STAI scale; results indicated that IR was inversely rleated to self-directing religious coping (-.71) and positively related to collaborative religious coping (.60), and less so with deferring religious coping (.45, all p<.0001, uncontrolled); IR was inversely rleated to SAI anxiety (-.30, p<.005) and ASQ (-.35, p<.005); Ep was positively related to STAI anxiety (.17, p<.05); self-directed religious coping was positively related to both anxiety scales (.34, p<.005), whereas collaborative and deferring religious coping were both inversely related to both anxiety scales (-.30 to -.38, uncontrolled); even after I/E-R scales and God concept factors were controlled, religious coping style added significant variance to both anxiety scales (beta=.28, p<.005 and beta=.29, p<.005))
Schaefer, C.A., & Gorsuch, R.L. (1993). Situational and personal variations in religious coping. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 32, 136-147. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 137 subjects affiliated with Protestant institutions in southern California (undergraduate students at Christian colleges and members of four adult Sunday School and Bible study classes at three churches) (mean age 24) (non-Christians were excluded from sample); administered Pargament et al 1988 Religious Problem Solving Scales (RPSS), situation-specific coping was assessed by presenting subjects with three brief vignettes (using RPSS responses adapted for each situation); subjects also categorized themselves into fundamentalist, evangelical, conservative, orthodox, etc. categories of theological belief; a state measure of religious copng style was developed and its constructed validity demonstrated) (no health outcomes)
Schaefer, L.E., Drachman, S.R., Steinberg, A.G., & Adlersberg, D. (1953). Genetic studies on hypercholesteremia: Frequency in hospital population and in families of hypercholesteremic index patients. American Heart Journal, 46, 99-116. (summarizes studies of hypercholesteremia in 250 men and 250 women consecutively admitted to Mount Sinai Hospital in NY, and presents an analysis of the families of 59 patients with idiopathic hypercholesteremia; higher % of hypercholesterolemia in 266 Jewish than 212 non-Jewish patients, 21% vs. 9%) (no statistical association given)
Schafer, W.E. (1997). Religiosity, spirituality, and personal distress among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 633-644. (C/S, convenience, 282 sociology students at CA State Univ at Chico; single items measured belief in God, importance of religion, Born Again status, dependence on higher power, belief in heaven & hell, self-rated spirituality, attendance, frequency of prayer; 50-item distress scale; importance of religion positively related to distress; belief in God "uncertain" had lowest distress; no other associations; no controls) (R-3)
Schaler (1996). Spiritual thinking in Addiction-Treatment Providers: The Spiritual Belief Scale (SBS). Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 14(3), 7-33. 7-page survey was mailed to 3 national treatment-provider organizations for patients. National Association of Alcoholism & Drug Abuse Counselors (NAADAC), Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors (SPAB), and Rational Recovery Systems(RRS). 295 were returned and the 8-item SBS was examined for this study. The SBS assessed spiritual thinking based on Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) philosophy (Release, Gratitude, Humility, Tolerance) =.92. There were significant difference scores on SBS (mean score was 24.27 SD=8.55) by gender (females higher, p< .001), religious affiliation (Catholic/ Protestant higher than Jews, Agnostic, or Atheist, p .001), and whether they were in recovery, AA now, AA in the past, and abstinent (all p .001) - interpreted as having stronger belief in metaphysical power that influences personal experience. Scores on the ABS (Addiction Belief Scale) followed by current AA status and whether the treatment provided is Catholic and/or Protestant or not explains greatest amount of variance in spiritual beliefs. Factor analysis of scores on SBS show characteristics of spiritual thinking measured by the SBS were a dimension of release, gratitude, and humility and a dimension of tolerance.
Schaal, M.D., Sephton, S.E., Thoreson, C., Koopman, C., and Spiegel, D. (1998, August) Religious Expression and Immune Competence in Women with Advanced Cancer. Paper presented at the Meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. Religious or spiritual practice has been linked with health outcomes. Among individuals who confront mortality due to advancing disease, such associations may be of particular relevance. We examined correlations between religious practice, endocrine and immune function in 112 women with metastatic breast cancer. The sample was primarily Caucasian (mean age = 53) and included women of Protestant (38%), Jewish (13%), Roman Catholic (15%), and other religious affiliation (18%), while 16% claimed no religious affiliation. Subjects reported their frequency of attendance at religious services and the importance of religious or spiritual expression in their lives. Diurnal salivary cortisol levels were assessed over three consecutive days. Lymphocyte numbers and NK cell activity were assessed with results averaged over two blood samples taken between 8:00 and 10:00 a.m., about 1 week apart. Functional immunity was also measured by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses to skin test antigens. Religious expression was positively associated with NK cell numbers (Spearman r = .19, p = .02), and marginally associated with T-helper cell counts (r = .16, p = .05) and total lymphocytes (r = .15, p = .05). These effects were not moderated by patients' social network size or by cancer treatments (e.g., chemotherapy) which affect immune cell counts. Religious expression was not associated with functional immune measures. Overall levels of salivary cortisol (e.g., area under the diurnal curve) were not associated with religious expression, but evening (5 p.m.) cortisol levels were lower among women reporting higher religious expression (r = .22, p = .01, n = 104). Among White women with advanced cancer, religious expression may moderate numeric, but not functional measures of immunity. Since effects were not driven by social network size, these results leave open the possibility that religious expression per se moderates neuroendocrine-immune pathways that preserve immunity under physically and emotionally taxing circumstances.
(Schiller PL, Levin JS (1988). Is there a religious factor in health care utilization?: A review. Social Science & Medicine 27:1369-1379 (see Levin section)) (out of 200 studies examining associations between physical disease and religion, 31 studies examined religion and health care utilization (including physician outpatient services, maternal and child health services, family planning, pediatric, psychiatric care, hospital services, preventive services, and others; in 24 of 31 studies, a religious variable was significantly related the HSU; in all studies, religious variables were peripheral to the primary hypothesis and there was a lack of theory given for the findings; reports new findings from an Appalacian Mountain Area study of 909 adults living in this impoverished coal-mining area (sampling method not given); examined health care utilization including frequency of physician visits (1-5 scale), length of time since last physician visit, length of time since last hospitalization, and length of stay during last hospitalization; religious measures were church membership, religious affiliation, frequency of attendance (0-4), and holding a church office (0,1) ("Are you a church officer?"); regression analysis controlled for age, sex, race, education, health status, chronic disease status, health locus of control, and the three other HSU indices (whew!); church membership unrelated to any of four HSU variables; church attendance positively related to number of physician visits (uncontrolled r=0.11, p<.01, but beta=.02, p=ns); holding a church office, however, was significantly related to a longer time since last hospitalization (beta=.40, p<.01) and a shorter length of hospital stay (beta=-1.92, p<.01) ("perhaps only the sturdiest and most energetic congregants become deacons, elders, ushers, etc.", p 1375); with regard to denomination, there was no association with any of four HSU variables, except for length of hospital stay, where Baptists had the longest (9.4 days) and non-affiliates had the shortest (3.5 days) (only 10 non-affiliates) (p<.05, uncontrolled; when controlled for age and education, p=ns); provides a conservative summary (i.e., no "convincing evidence of a consistent generalizable trend") - HGK
Schlegel, R.P., & Sanborn, M.D. (1979). Religious affiliation and adolescent drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 40, 693-703. (C/S study of 352 boy and 490 girl students grades 9-11 in two school systems in southern Ontario, Canada (2nd wave of random sample of 1750 students); heavy drinkers were more prevalent among non-affiliates (boys 36%, girls 19%) than those associated with liberal Protestants (boys 26%, girls 11%), Catholics (boys 25%, girls 15%), or proscriptive Protestants (boys 5%, girls 5%); both drinking and heavy drinking were significantly lower among proscriptive Protestants; proscriptive Protestants who no longer attend church, however, had very high rates of heavy drinking, particularly among boys (46%); no controls)
Schleifer, S.J., Keller, S.e., Camerino, M., et al (1983). Supression of lymphocyte stimulation following bereavement. Journal of the American Medical Association, 250, 274-277. (prospective cohort study of 15 spouses of women with advanced breast CA; examined lymphocyte stimulation responses to phytohemagglutinin, concanavalin A, and pokeweed mitogen; lymphocyte stimulation was significantly suprressed during the first two months following death of a spouse, compared with pre-bereavement levels; an intermediate level of mitogen responsivity was found during the 4-14 month period after bereavement; might be related to the increased morbidity and mortality associated with bereavement)
Schofield, W., & Balian, L. (1959). A comparative study of the personal histories of schizophrenics and non-psychiatric patients. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 216-225. (CC, conv 178 schizophrenics compared with 150 "normals" (patients referred for treatment to U of Minnesota hospitals); schizophrenics not different from non-schizophrenics on church attendance (1-3), but religiousness was less intellectualized and ritualistic among Ss compared with Ns (4.1% vs 18.3%, p<.01, no controls) (R-6)
Schlosser (1977). health in a new key. Health Values, 1(6):258 - other file
Schmidt, P.F. (1988) Moral values of adolescents: public versus Christian schools. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 7, 50-54. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 191 adolescents -- 118 from public and 73 from Christian schools -- mostly Church of Christ and Baptist in Kentucky; found that Christian students have higher moral character (overall, p<.01), particularly in terms of money, sex, and bodily health) (not controlled)
Schneider, R.H., Staggers, F., Alexander, C., Sheppard, W., Rainforth, M. Kondwani, K., Smith, S., & King, C.G. (1995). A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African Americans. Hypertension, 26, 820-829. (111 African Americans in Oakland, CA, ages 55-85 with baseline blood pressures =179/104 mmHg (mild hypertension) were enrolled in a randomized, controlled single-blind trial of Transcendental Meditation compared with progressive muscle relaxation and a life-style modification education control program; TM and PMR sessions lasted 1.5 hours initially and 1.5 hours/month for 3 months; data collected every month; showed TM had significantly greater effects on SBP (p=.02) and DBP (p=.03) than PMR; SBP reduced by 10.7 mm (P,.003) and DBP reduced by 6.4 mm (P,.0001) for TM; TM was twice as effective as PMR in reducing systolic and diastolic blood pressures) (excellent study)
Schneider, S. G., Farberow, N. L., & Kruks, G. N. (1989). Suicidal behavior in adolescent and young gay men. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 19(4), 381-394.
Schoenbach, V.J., Kaplan, B.H., Fredman, L., & Kleinbaum, D.G. (1986). Social ties and mortality in Evans County, Georgia. American Journal of Epidemiology, 123, 577-591. (prospective cohort study of a population-based sample of 2,059 persons involved in the Evans Count Cardiovascular Study in Georgia, initially examined in 1960 and re-examined in 1967; mortality data examined in 1980 covering 20 years; 26% of sample had died by 1980; participation in church activities was associated with lower mortality for persons aged 60 or above, except in Black males; the effects were particularly notable for white males (43% vs 60%), white females (35% vs 52%), and Black females (41% vs 50%); after controlling for other variables, the low religious activities increased the age-adjusted hazard ratio by 50% (1.5) in white males and to a similar extent in Black females)
Scholl, M.E., & Beker, J. (1964). A comparison of religious beliefs of delinquent and non-delinquent Protestant adolescent boys. Religious Education, 59, 250-253. (CS, conv, 52 Protestant adolescents at training school for delinquents; compared to 28 white boys nominated by minister as active in church life; 15-52 religious items (RB,RE); comparison of responses made by 4 subgroups of delinquents, including whether attended church prior to institutionalization; no difference on religiousness between prior CA and non-CA; also, little if any significant differences between delinquent and non-D groups; delinquents more likely to agree to pro-religious statements in 3 different cases (p<.05, uncontrolled); concluded that no evidence that delinquent behavior is related to religious attitudes) (R-2)
Schulz, R., Bookwala, J., Shier, M., Knapp, J.E., & Williamson, G.M. (1996). Pessimism, age, and cancer mortality. Psychology and Aging, 11, 304-309. (8-month prospective cohort study of consecutive sample of 238 cancer patients receiving palliative radiation therapy in western Pennsylvania; 70 patients had died at follow-up; hierarchical regression analysis found that there was an interaction between pessimism (measured by Life Orientation Test of Scheier & Carver 1985) and age, such that only persons in the youngest age group (ages 30-59) did pessimism have a negative effect on mortality (p<.05); no similar association was found for depression assessed by CES-D) (important study - similar to ours)
Schulz, R., & Beach, S. R. (1999). Care giving as a risk factor for mortality: the caregiver health effects study. JAMA, 282, 2215-2219. (392 caregivers and 427 non-caregivers aged 66 to 96 living with their spouses were followed for a period of 4.5 years from 1993 through 1998. After four years of follow-up 13% of participants had died. Subjects were categorized into four groups: (1) spouse not disabled (n=427), (2) spouse disabled and not helping (n= 75), (3) spouse disabled and helping but no emotional strain reported (n = 138), (4) spouse disabled and helping with mental emotional strain (n= 179). Baseline care giving status predicted greater four-year mortality, both in terms of unadjusted relative risk (1.75, 95% CI 1.10-2.80, p<.05) and adjusted relative risk (1.63, 95% CI 1.00-2.65, p<.05). Investigators concluded that the caregiver who is experiencing mental or emotional strain is an independent risk factor for mortality among elderly spousal caregivers.
Schumaker, J.F. (ed). (1992). Religion and Mental Health. NY: Oxford University Press.
Schumm, W.R., Bollman, S.R., & Jurich, A.P. (1982). The "marital conventionalization" argument: Implications for the study of religiosity and marital satisfaction. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 10, 236-241 (C/S survey; provides data to discount Edmonds' "marital conventionalization" argument that discounts positive associations between religion and marital satisfaction due to social desirability or acquiescence response biases; random sample of intact families with at least 1 adolescent member in rural (n=83) and urban areas (n=98) of Kansas; even among subjects who do not respond in "conventionalizing" ways (or controlling for scores on 5 items of the Marriage Conventionalization Scale used to measure social desirable responses), there is a significant positive correlation between religiosity (importance of church (.50), importance of religion (.63), rank-ordered importance of religion (.60)) and marital stability and happiness)
Schwab, R., & Petersen, K.U. (1990). Religiousness: Its relation to loneliness, neuroticism, and subjective well-being. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29, 335-345. (C/S survey of 115 women and 91 men between 15 and 87 yo in Germany; neuroticism was inversely related to "a helpful God" (-.19), "Active Christianity" (-.18), and "Esteem for the Church" (-.17) (all p<.05) (uncontrolled), whereas "general belief in God" and "a wrathful God" were unrelated to neuroticism; loneliness was inversely related to "a helpful God" (-.22, p<.05) even after controlling for neuroticism in a regression model, and positively related (though not significant) to "a wrathful God")
Schwartz, A.H., & Slaby, A.E. (1971). Adjustment and fantasy in medical students. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 117-122 (C/S survey of 46 of 83 graduating students of Yale Medical School in 1970 (mean age 26, 41 men, 26 married, 44 Caucasian; family backgrounds were 20 Protestants, 11 Jewish, 7 Catholic); 11 students were were significantly more dissatisfied with their medical school training than their colleagues were termed "dissatisfied" group; only 2 students out of 11 in this group indicated they belonged to an organized religion, compared with 18 persons of 30 in satisfied group)
Schwartz, M.A., Wiggins, O.P., & Spitzer, M. (1997). Psychotic experience and disordered thinking: A reappraisal from new perspectives. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 176-187. (proposes that connectedness, embeddedness, and spiritual awareness may be explained by enhanced nearby excitation (or diminshed nearby excitation) and diminished distal inhibition (or enhanced distal excitation) in cortical networks) (review and theory)
Schweiger, U., Weber, B., Deuschle, M., Heuser, I. (2000). Lumbar bone mineral density in patients with major depression: evidence of increased bone loss at follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 118-120 (quantitative CT of lumbar bone density conducted during a longitudinal assessment of 18 depressed patients and 21 healthy women. Follow-up lasted for 24 months. Bone loss was significantly greater for depressed patients compared to controls and greater for men than for women. The authors concluded that major depression may be associated with increased bone loss, especially for men.
Schweitzer, R., Klayich, M., & McLean, J. (1995). Suicidal ideation and behaviours among university students in Australia. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 29(3), 473-479.
Scotch, N. (1963). Sociocultural factors in the epidemiology of Zulu hypertension. American Journal of Public Health, 53, 1205-1213. (C/S survey of systematic random sample of Zulu men and women living in rural and urban areas of South Africa; diastolic hypertension was more common among infrequent Christian church attenders (p<.001) among 548 Zulus living in rural areas (both men and women), but not among 505 living in urban areas; church membership, on the other hand, was associated with absence of diastolic hypertension among women in urban areas (p=.02), but not men in urban areas or men or women in rural areas) (uncontrolled); author states, with weak justification, that in Zulu society women are expected to attend church, whereas men are seen as peculiar if they do, and thus concluded that people who deviate from the social norm are more likely to be hypertensive)
Sears, S.F., & Greene, A.F. (1994). Religious coping and the threat of heart disease. Journal of Religion and Health, 33, 221-229.] (C/S survey of 79 consecutive candidates for heart transplant at a cardiac clinic at a university medical center in southern U.S. (Jackson, Miss) (ave age 53, 85% male, 87% white, 37% ischemic CM and 30% CHF); used Gorsuch-McPherson 3-item religious motivation scale: one IR item (whole approach to life based on religion), one ER-personal item (what religion offers most is comfort in times of trouble), one ER-social item (social - enjoy seeing people at church), and one religious interest item (how interested in religion are you); short form of Pargament's Religious Problem-Solving Scales (self-directing, collaborative, deferring); anxiety by STAI (Spielberger); deferring/collaborators group had highest interest in religion (n=9), self-directors with least interest in religion (n=37), and eclectics whose religious coping depends on type of stressor (n=24); eclectics experienced higher anxiety scores than self-directors (39.9 vs 33.6, p<.05); deferring /collaborators group had intermediate anxiety at 37.5) (no other comparisons, no controls) (weak)
Seeman, T.E., Kaplan, G.A., Knudsen, L., Cohen, R., & Guralnik, J. (1987). Social network ties and mortality among the elderly in the Alameda County study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126, 714-723. (prospective cohort study of 4,175 persons age 38 or over in Alameda County study; outcome was death by 1982 (17-year follow-up); lack of church membership (controlling for age, sex, race, and baseline health status) predicted greater mortality (RH 1.32, CI 1.13-1.54, p<.05) for persons age 60 or over and for persons aged 38-49, with RH=1.82, CI 1.27-2.59, p<.05); after adjusting for behavioral and psychological risk factors (age, sex, race, baseline health, smoking, physical activity, weight, depression, perceived health status), increased hazard of dying persisted for persons ages 38-49 (RH 1.49, CI 1.02-2.17 p<.05) (good study)
Seeman, T. (1991). Personal control and coronary artery disease: How generalized expectancies about control may influence disease risk. Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 35, 661-669. (C/S survey of 119 men and 40 women ages 30-70 referred for angiography to SF Bay area hospitals for suspected CAD (out of 182 referrals); completed questionnaires day before cardiac catheterization; personal mastery measured by 7-item Pearlin & Schooler scale; covariables included age, sex, income, education, hypertension, cholesterol, smoking, angina, diabetes, family history of CAD, hostility and Type A behavior; dependent variable was angiographically doumented coronary atherosclerosis; mean CAD score was significantly higher among those with high mastery (692.3 vs 584,1, p<.05, uncontrolled); after controlling for all other risk factors, mastery continued to predict CAD score (beta 0.20, p=.03); concluded that a strong sense of personal mastery (or "internal" control) is independently associated with greater CAD, over and above other traditional risk factors; reasons may lie in the patterns of physiological arousal that occurs in response to environmental stimuli, such as greater activation of the sympathetic, adrenal, and pituitary axis with excess production of catecholamines and corticosteroids, which increases heart disease risk)
Seeman, T.E., & McEwen, B.S. (1996). Impact of social environment characteristics on neuroendocrine regulation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 459-471. (subperb review of research showing a link between increased social support and buffering of the stress response; whether a stressor is a life-threatening illness, severe disability, some time of environmental diseaster, interpersonal loss, or interpersonal conflict, perceived support -- from God, clergy, or members of a religious congregation could reduce the physiological reactivity to it) (immune)
*[Segall, M., & Wykle, M. (1988-1989). The black family's experience with dementia. Journal of Applied Social Sciences, 13, 170-191.] (59 Black family caregivers asked about how they coped with stress; 65% spontaneously mentioned religious coping; also asked to rate on a 1-5 scale how much prayer and faith were used to cope (4.3 and 4.0 were average scores, respectively)) (?)
Seiden, R.H. (1979). Rev Jones on Suicide. - see other file
Seidlitz, L., Duberstein, P., Cox, C., & Conwell, Y. (1995). Attitudes of older people toward suicide and assisted suicide; an analysis of Gallup poll findings. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43(9), 993-998.
Seidman, H. (1966). Lung cancer among Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant males in New York City. Cancer, 19, 185-190. (male white caucasian deaths in NYC in 1940, 1949-51, 1958-1962; examined deaths rates by religious denomination; lung cancer death rates for Catholics and Protestants were 50% greater than for that among Jews; over time, Jews have reversed from being a high lung cancer group to being a low rate group; Jewish men smoke fewer cigarettes) (uncontrolled, except age)
Seidman, H., Garfinkel, L., & Craig, L. (1964). Death rates in New York city by socio-economic class and religious group and by country of birth, 1949-1951. Jewish Journal of Sociology, 4, 254-273. (compares death rates among Jews and non-Jews in NYC between 1949-1951 (n=202,851); Jews show favorable mortality at younger ages, even when age, sex, and SES is taken into account; this is in part due to inflated death rates among Puerto Ricans at younger ages; at later ages, this survival advantage for Jews diminishes and even reverses)
Seidman, H. (1970). Cancer death rates by site and sex for religious and socioeconomic groups in new York City. Environmental Research, 3, 234-250. (examines age-adjusted death rates by sex for various cancer sites for Jews and non-Jews; males, less CA, but females greater CA in Jews.
Seidman, H. (1971). Cancer mortality in New York City for country-of-birth, religious, and socioeconomic groups. Environmental Research, 4, 390-429. (presents age-adjusted mortality by sex for cancer sites among non-Puerto Rican whites in New York City ages 1949-1951; Jewish males have lower SMR for all cancer sites than non-Jewish or Catholic (90 vs 105 or 110, differences that persist at all SES levels); in contrast, Jewish females have higher SMR for all cancer sites than non-Jewish or Catholic (112 vs 95 or 92, differences which persist at all SES levels) (many tables)
Seidman, S.N., Mosher, W.D., & Aral, S.O. (1992). Women with multiple sexual partners: United States, 1988. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1388-1394. (C/S survey of 7011 sexually active women ages 15-44 yo surveyed as part of National Survey of Family Growth cycle IV conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics; those with a religious affiliation were less likely than those without to have multiple sexual partners (>=2 partners in last 3 months) 3.1% vs. 8.7%, p<.01) (percents are weighted national estimates); among White women (5354), lack of religious affiliation independently predicts multiple sexual partners, whereas among Black women (2771) low or irregular church attendance predicts multiple sexual partners) (controlled) (excellent)
Seligman, M.E.P., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., & Gillham, J. (1995). The Optimistic Child. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co. (current president of the APA talks about high rates of depression amoung youth)
Seligman, M.E.P. (1998). Optimism, hope, and ending the epidemic of depression. Address given at the Templeton Board of Advisors Meeting, Philadelphia, February 10. (1% of those born around World War I experienced depression, 3.5% of those born around World War II, 7% born around the Korean wWar, 10% around Vietnam War, and 12-15% of children by the time they graduate from high school today)
Selway, D., & Ashman, A. F. (1998). Disability, Religion and Health: a literature review in search of the spiritual dimensions of disability. Disability & Society, 13 (3), 429-439.
Sensky, T., Wilson, a. Petty, r., Fenwick, P.B.C., Rose, F.C. (1984). the interictal personality traits of temporal lobe epileptics: Relgiious belief and its association with reported mystical experiences. In Porter, r.J., et al (eds), Advances in Epileptology: XVth Epilepsy International Symposium. NY: Raven Press, 545-549. (don't have it) (surveyed 179 patients attending neurological clinics at three London teaching hospitals; excluded 42 with with mental disorder or history of psychiatric illness or substance abuse, and for epileptics, patients without EEG confirmed epilepsy, leaving 137 whom they divided into groups with primary generalized epilepsy (n=58), migraine (n=50), or tempoeral lobe epilepsy (n=29); assessment included questions on religious practices, mystical experiences, and religiousness; temporal lobe epileptics did not score significantly different on any of the religious measures)
Sephton, S., Schaal, M., Koopman, C., Thoresen, C., Spiegel, D. (1998). Spirituality is positively associated with immune status: an exploratory study (manuscript in preparation). (study examined association of religious practices with immune function in 112 women with metastatic breast cancer; mean age of subjects was 53 years and they had been living with metastatic breast cancer warned average of two years; flow cytometric measurements of lymphocyte numbers and assessments of NK cell activity were conducted; subjects reporting more frequent religious attendance and those who were more spiritual had greater numbers of NK cells (r=.20, p=.02); religious practice was related to greater numbers of T-helper cells (r=.16, p=. 05) and greater total lymphocyte numbers (r=.15, p=.05), but no measures of NK cell function)
Sethi, S., & Seligman, M.E.P. (1993). Optimism and fundamentalism. Psychological Science, 4, 256-259. (two studies: Study 1: C/S survey of convenience sample of 623 adherents of nine major religions in U.S., divided into fundamentalists (Orthodox Judaism, Calvinism, and Islam), moderates (conservative Judaism, Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Methodism), and liberals (Unitarianism, reformed Judaism); 60-80 persons from each religion participated, ages 18-65; subjects recruited during religious services; optimism measured by Atributional Style Questionnaire; fundamentalists were much more optimistic than members of liberal religions, with moderates lying in between (F=14.8, p<.0001), both with regard to positive events (p<.0001) and for negative events (p<.05); there were significant differences between groups in terms of religious influence in daily life, religious involvement, and religious hope; religious influence in daily life, religious involvement, and religious hope were all significantly greater (all p<.00001) among fundamentalists; when analyses were controlled for income, sex, and education, this did not make any difference in the findings; in Study 2, selected four most typical hymns and prayers for each religion as suggested by church leaders, and tape recorded sermons; CAVE technique used to analyze contents; found more optimism in the religious materials they read and heard; fundamentalist religious services express much more optimism than do liberal services, with moderate services lying in between (p<.00001); when the latter factors were controlled for at the individual level in the first study, fundamentalistm dropped out as a predictor of individual CPCN; concluded that optimism differences stem partly from the religious material to which persons are exposed, and the rest is explained by greater religious involvment, influence, and hope)
Sethi, S., & Seligman, M.E.P. (1994). The hope of fundamentalists. Psychological Science, 5, 58. (reanalyze data from 1993 study (Psychological Science 4, 156-159), showing that even after "internality-externality" is controlled, fundamentalism is still associated with higher levels of hope and optimism, all p's .01; results also suggest that fundamentalists are less likely to attribute their failures to themselves, but are no more likely than members of other religious groups to attribute their successes to themselves; thus F is associated woth more hopefulness, less hopelessness, and less self-blame)
Shafranske, E.P., & Malony, H.N. (1990). Clinical psychologists' religious and spiritual orientations and their practice of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 27, 72-78. (C/S survey of 1,000 clinical psychologists randomly selected from the 1987 membership of APA's Division 12 (Clinical Psychology), with 409 surveys returned (73% men; 33% psychoanalytic, 30% cognitive, 17% humanistic); 40% endorsed a personal, transcendent God, 30% endorsed a transcendent dimension inall of nature, 26% held the position that all ideologies are illusion, and 2% that all ideologies are illusion and are irrelevant to the real world; 53% indicated that having religious beliefs as desirable for people in general, 14% as undesirable, and 33% expressed a neutral position; 65% reported spirituality as personally relevant; 70% were affiliated with religion (29.8% no affiliation); 40.8% were active or regularly participating in organized religious activities; less than 1 in 5 agreed that organized religion was the primary source of their spirituality; 49% reported no attendance; most common religious affiliation was Jewish (15.6%) and next most common was Catholic (13.9%); with regard to religious interventions in practice, 91% knew the client's religious backgrounds, 74% disagreed that religious issues were outside the scope of psychology, 36% had recommended participation in religion, and 7% had prayed with patients (although 68% agreed that it was inappropriate for a psychologist to pray with a client); note that response rate was only 41%, and respondents were likely more interested in religion than non-respondents) (descriptive)
Shafranske, E.P., & Malony, H.N. (1990). California psychologists' religiosity and psychotherapy. Journal of Religion and Health, 29, 219-231. (C/S survey of 47 of 100 psychologists randomly selected from roster of liscensed psychologists in state of California; 62-item questionnaire included degrees of belief in a personal God (Lehman 1974), Batson's Means-Ends-Quest scale, and items measuring attitudes toward religion in general; 22/46 participated in religion (1 DK), 31/40 said that spirituality was relevant to them personally (6 DK), and 23/39 said that spirituality was relevant to them professionally (8 DK); 26% believe in a personal God in the traditional sense, 26% believe in a transcendent dimension found in all manifestations of nature, and 34% believe notions of God are illusory products of human immagination; only 2/40 indicated that participation in an organized religious body is the primary source of my spirituality (5 DK); 80% had very limited or no involvement in organized religion; 40% with no identification with religion and no involvement or disdain or negative reaction to religion; with regard to religious affiliation, 51% gave "none" or no response, and the next largest group was Jewish at 15%); only 10/47 disagreed with the statement, "I would never pray with a client"; a Quest orientation was the only factor that significantly associated with appreciation of religious and spiritual issues or use of interventions of a religious nature)
Shafranske EP. Religious involvement and professional practices of psychiatrists and other mental health professionals. Psychiatric Annals. 2000;30(8):525-532. (a random sample survey published in 2000 of APA members found 42% indicated religion was not very important in their lives, compared to only 12% of the US population, suggesting a sizeable difference between the groups regarding the role religion plays in daily life; More than 75% of physicians specializing in rehabilitation medicine rated religion as important compared with 57% of the psychiatrists. Also found that 65% indicated that religious and spiritual issues were rarely or never addressed in training. However, in practice 92% of these graduate psychiatrists indicated religious or spiritual issues came up in psychiatric treatment at least sometimes, often, or a great deal. Furthermore, 44% reported that "loss of purpose or meaning in life" was a focus of treatment either often or a great deal of the time)
Shagle, S. C., & Barber, B. K. (1995). A socio-ecological analysis of adolescent suicidal ideation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65(1), 114-124.
Shams, M., & Jackson, P.R. (1993). Religiosity as a predictor of well-being and moderator of the psychological impact of unemployment. Journal of Medical Psychology, 66, 341-352. (C/S survey of a convenience sample of 69 employed and 71 unemployed male British Asians (Muslims) (for unemployed group, ave length of unemployment was 3.5 years); psychological well-being measured with 12-item GHQ; religiosity measured by modified version of Allport-Vernon Scale of Values, retaining religious, economic, and social subscales for this study; religiosity was significantly related to psychological well-being in the combined sample, after controlling for age and employment status (education was unrelated to outcome, so was not controlled); there was a significant interaction between religiosity and employment status; for unemployed respondents, higher religiosity scores were associated with better psychological well-being (r=.37, p<.001), whereas the association in employed respondents was not significant)
Shan, H (1999). Chinese Transcendental meditation-induced culture bound syndrome. Unpublished manuscript. (Has references that document induction of psychosis and other mental problems during Transcendental meditation)
Shapira, M., Tamir, A. (1998). Ulcerative colitis in the Kinneret subdistrict, Israel 1965-1994: incidence and prevalence in different subgroups. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, 27, 134-137.
Shapiro, S., Weinblatt, E., Frank, C.W., & Sager, R.V. (1969). Incidence or coronary heart disease in a population insured for medical care (HIP): Myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, and possible myocardial nfarction. American Journal of Public Health, 59, 1-100. (3-year prospective study of all members of Health Insurance Plan of greater NY; study of 110,000-120,000 persons aged 25-64; age-adjusted MI incidence rates per 1000 for males aged 35-64 were 8.2 for Jews vs. 4.0 for Prot vs. 3.9 for Ca; also higher icidence of angina: 3.2 for jews, 1.8 for Catholics, and 1.5 for Protestants (see p 48) (similar finding as Friedman and Hellerstein, 1968)
Shapiro, S., Skinner, E.A., Kessler, L.G., Von Korff, M., German, P.S., Tischler, G.L., Leaf, P.J., Benham, L., Cottler, L., Regier, D.A. (1984). Utilization of health and mental health services. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 971-978. (other file) (nothing on clergy or religion)
Sharkey, P.W., & Malony, H.N. (1986). Religiosity and emotional disturbance: A test of Ellis's thesis in his own counseling center. Psychotherapy, 23, 640-641. (C/S survey of systematic sample of 440 persons who sought consultation at the Albert Ellis's New York Institute for the Advanced Study of Rational Psychotherapy (based on records of clients coming for service at Institute), 28 classified themselves as "very religious" and 34 as atheists; a 12% random sample of the remaining 378 subjects (n=33) were also examined as a "neutral" group; groups were compared on extent of problems reported in the areas of acceptance, frustration, injustice, achievement, self-worth, control, certainty, and catastrophizing on 1-3 scale for each area; incidence of problems was no greater in any category; in fact atheists reported higher (worse) scores on six of eight measures, including one category called "certainty" where higher (worse) scores among atheists approached statistical significance (p=.06) (uncontrolled)
Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P, (1988). Influences on diet, health behaviors and their outcome in select ethnocultural and religious groups. Nutrition, 14(2), 223-230. Review of population-based differences in dietary habits and other behaviors by ethnocultural group or religious denomination. Reviews Seven Day Adventist studies (4 US, 2 Japan, 1 Denmark), 1 Mormon (Canada), 1 Zen Buddhist priest (Japan), 1 Old Order Amish (US), 1 Jat Hindus (India), 1 Jew/non-Jew (Israel), 1 buddhist (Taiwan), and 1 Ultra Orthodox Jew (Canada). Concludes by saying comparative studies in North America and Europe should be pursued to future studies need to distinguish between religious observance and participation, define extent of observance/compliance, and better separation of confounds (social status, ethnicity, etc.). Says that dietary assessment should integrate cultural determinants into nutritional evaluations and health- assessment strategies.
Shaver, P., Lenauer, M., & Sadd, S. (1980). Religiousness, conversion, and subjective well-being: the "healthy-minded" religion of modern American women. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 1563-1568. (C/S survey of readers of Redbook magazine concerning their religious beliefs and experiences; 97-item questionnaire was published in September 1976 issue of Redbook; readers were invited to mail their answers to editors before end of month; over 65,000 replies were received; a random sample of 2,500 of these replies were studied (median age of women was 31; better educated with 60% more than HS; 96% white; 23% Catholic, 70% Protestant); 27% very religious, 56% moderately religious, 16% as slightly or non-religious; 66% said religious belief very important, 24% fairly important, and 9% not very or not important; when asked about changes in religiousness over past 5 yrs, 33% said much more R, 25% somewhat more R, 29% same, and 14% less religious; 61% were still of religion in which raised and 17% had converted to religion out of deep conviction; religiousness (based on single item) was related to 12 physical and mental symptoms and unhappiness in a curvilinear fashion (inverted U), although 83% of the sample was in the first part of U); either very religious or anti-religious were the happiest with the fewest symptoms)
Shebani, B.L., Wass, H., & Guertin, w.H. (1986). correlates of life satisfaction for old Libyans compared with the judgments of libyan youth. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 24, 19-28. (C/S survey of 215 volunteers aged 18-92 in Libya (106 undergraduate students and 109 aged male and female relatives) to determine correlates of life satisfaction in old age (sampling method not given); focus of study, however, was comparison of old and young on different attitudes toward life and religion; among males, young more likely to attend church, but old somewhat more likely to believe in God; among females, no substantial differences between young and old on these variables) (no controls) (no health outcomes reported)
Sheehan, N.W. (1989). The caregiver information project: A mechanism to assist religious leaders to help family caregivers. The Gerontologist, 29, 703-706. (trained 200 clergy, lay religious volunteers, and social service providers about caregiver issues and ways to provide information to family caregivers; resulted in improving knowledge and competence in these areas and stimulated caregiver program development) (descriptive) (R-6)
Sheehan, W., & Kroll, J. (1990). Psychiatric patients' belief in general health factors and sin as causes of illness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 112-113. (C/S survey of 52 of 54 psychiatric patients on a psychiatric ward at University of Minnesota hospital in Minneapolis; 63% women and 67% under age 35, 31% with major depression, 21% with bipolar disorder, 19% with schizophrenia, and 8% with personality disorder; only 23% thought their illness could be a result of sinful acts and 10% believed they were in the hospital because they had sinned (mainly personality disorder patients with borderline or bulimia); 19% believed they needed penance before they could improve); depressed patients averaged 0.9 sin-related items, compared with 2.2 for schizophrenics (p=ns); patients with personality disorder more likely to endorse item indicating they were in hospital because they had sinned (40% vs 2%, p=.003) (no controls)
Sheeran, P., Spears, R., Abraham, S.C.S., & Abrams, D. (1996). Religiosity, gender, and the double standard. Journal of Psychology, 130, 23-33. (C/S survey, convenience sample of 682 students at public schools in Scotland (59% female, 47% virgins, mean age 17); response to a single item, "Would you say that personally, you are religious?" (17% indicated yes); asked to estimate the number of sex partners of most 20 year old men and women, asked to evaluate a young woman who changes her male partner a number of times during the year, and asked to evaluation same for a young man; religious students (especially religious women) were more likely than non-religious to describe sexually active women as irresponsible and lacking self-respect (p<.05); no differences by religiousness in attitudes toward sexually active men) (no controls)
Shehan, C.L., Bock. E.W., & Lee, G.R. (1990). Religious heterogamy, religiosity, and marital happiness: The case of Catholics. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 73-79. (C/S survey data from NORC GSS data 1973-1978,1980, and 1982-1985 were pooled to obtain 1,753 cases, 412 interfaith unions and 1,341 homogenous unions; marital happiness assessed with a single item that was dichotomized into "very happy" vs "not very happy" or "pretty happy") religiosity measured by frequency of church attendance; while uncontrolled marital happiness between homogenous and interfaith unions is the same, the multivariate analyses reveals that Catholics in homogenous marriages are much more likely to attend religious services frequently, and increased frequency of religious attendance is associated with happiness; examining the interaction between religious attendance and heterogamy, found that religious heterogamy negatively affects marital happiness among Catholics who attend mass frequently but has little effect on those who attend mass infrequently; also the attendance effect is large for same-faith marriages, but small for mixed-faith marriages) (controlled)
Sherkat, D.E., & Reed, M.D. (1992). The effects of religion and social support on self-esteem and depression among the suddenly bereaved. Social Indicators Research, 26, 259-275. (C/S survey of all family members of persons who died as a result of accidents or suicide in large urban area in southeastern U.S. during a 12-month period in 1987 (data obtained on 156 out of 795 families); religious measures were affiliation, frequency of prayer, and church attendance; frequency of prayer was unrelated to measures of depression or self-esteem; church attendance was inversely related to depression (investigator's scale) (beta -.24, p<.01), but when quality of social support, frequency of confiding, and social integration included in OLS model, it explained the effect (beta=-.13, ns); CA also significantly rleated to self-esteem, even after social variables included in OLS model (.19, p<.01); GLS models confirmed results; prayer has a modest positive indirect effect on self-esteem thrugh its strong effeect on church attendance)
Sherrill, K.A. (1988). Adult burn patients: The role of religion in recovery. Southern Medical Journal, 81, 821-824. (review and opinion, with 2 case studies reported) (no other data)
Sherrill, K.A., Larson, D.B., & Greenwold, M. (1993). Is religion taboo in gerontology? A systematic review of research on religion in three major gerontology journals, 1985-1991. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 1, 109-117 (R)
Shifrin, J. (1998). The faith community as a support for people with mental illness. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 80, 69-80.
Shortz, J.L., & Worthington, E.L. (1994). Young adults' recall of religiosity, attributions, and coping in parental divorce. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33, 172-179. (C/S survey; convenience sample of 131 undergraduate psychology students at an urban, public university in the SE United States who experienced their parents' divorce during their own adolescence; religious causal attributions (measured by asking "To what extent did you believe, at the time of the dirovce, that this event was due to: you, yourself; chance or luck; God's will or purpose; God's anger or punishment; God's love; parents' personalities, external stressors or other causes") predicted coping behaviors -- especially religious coping (measured by Pargament's 31-item Religious Coping Activities scale) -- independent of level of religious commitment (church attendance and importance of religion at time of divorce) in students coping with divorce; authors concluded that religious causal attributions may "uniquely" influence how persons cope with stress (here, divorce of parent) (no controls, although regression models used)
Shrauger, J.S., & Silverman, R.E. (1971). The relationship of religious background and participation to locus of control. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 10, 11-16. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 465 introductory psychology students at State University of New York at Buffalo (146 males, 319 females); assessed on religious background and frequency of religious attendance, and correlated with Rotter's locus of control scale; subjects who were regular participants were more internal than those who attended sometimes or rarely/not at all (p<.05); this effect was present only for females (p<.0001), whereas the effect was opposite for males (although not significant); Jews were significantly more external than Protestants, while Catholics did not differ from either two groups) (no associations were controlled for other variables)
*[Shrimali, S., & Broota, K.A. (1987). Effects of surgical stress on belief in God and superstition: An in situ investigation. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 3, 135-138.]
Shrum, W. (1980). Religion and marital instability: change in the 1970's? Review of Religious Research, 21, 135-147. (C/S survey of 7,029 subjects pooled from national probability samples of English-speaking persons age 18 or older in U.S.; examined religious attendance and affiliation and marital stability (measured by a single item asking if persons had ever been divorced or separated; among persons attending church 1/year, 34% d/s; among those attending 1-several times/year, 27% d/s; among those attending 1/month or more, 18% d/s (p<.001, persisting after controlling for education, age, age at marriage, and family income; Catholics least likely to get divorced)
Shuler, P.A., Gelberg, L., & Brown, M. (1994). The effects of spiritual/religious practices on psychological well-being among inner city homeless women. Nurse Practitioner Forum, 5(2), 106-113. (C/S survey; convenience sample of 50 homeless women ages 18-44 from a family planning clinic for homeless women in the city of Los Angeles (excluded if pregnant, rape victim, sterilized, intoxicated, severe mental, physical, or terminal illness); pesronal prayer, attendance, Bible reading, request for spiritual/religious consultation, effectiveness of religious coping, helpfulness of religion to gain strengh, hope, meet needs, and feel better about self; 4-item psycholgical distress inventory and 6-item substance abuse inventory; religious activities were widespread: 88% prayed, 70% attended regularly, 68% read Bible; 42% said religion gave them strength to sruvive, 20% said religion gave them hope, 8% agreed to a religious referral; 48% indicated prayer was effective in coping, and these subjects reported fewer worries (p<.05), fewer depressive symptoms (p<.05), less likelihood of drinking alcohol in past 6 months (42% vs 69%, p<.05) and to use cocaine daily (17% vs 42%, p<.05)
Siegel, B.S. (1988). Love, Medicine, & Miracles. NY:Harper & Row (don't have it)
Siemiatycki, J., Colle, E., Campbell, S., Dewar, R. A., Belmonte, M. M. (1989). Case-control study of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 12, 209-216.
Sicher, F., Targ, E., Moore, D., & Smith, H.S. (1998). A randomized double-blind study of the effect of distant healing in a population with advanced AIDS. Western Journal of Medicine, 169, 356-363. (Double-blind randomized trial of distant healing in 40 patients with advanced AIDS. Subjects were pair-matched for age, CD4+ counts, number of AIDS-defining illnesses and randomly assigned to either 10 weeks of distant healing or a control group. Distant healers were self-identified healers representing many healing and spiritual conditions. Healers were located throughout United States and had no contact with subjects. Subjects were assessed at baseline, at the end of the 10-we treatment, and at follow-up 12-14 weeks later. At six months from the start of the study a blinded medical chart review found that treatment subjects acquired significantly fewer new AIDS-defining illnesses (p=.04), had lower illness severity (p=.03), required fewer doctors visits (9.2 vs. 13.0, p=.01), and fewer days of hospitalization (0.5 vs. 3.4, p=.04). Treated subjects also had significantly better mood than controls (p=.02). There was no significant difference in CD4+ counts between treated subjects and controls. Healers consisted of 40 practitioners located throughout United States; eligibility criteria included a minimum five years of ongoing healing practice, previous healing experience at a distance with at least 10 patients, and previous healing experience with AIDS. Practitioners included healers from Christian, Jewish, Buddhist, Native American, and shamanic traditions as well as graduates of schools of bioenergetic and meditative healing. Healers were randomized to subjects on a weekly basis. Each subject in the distant healing group was treated by a total of ten different healers, whereas each practitioner work every other week treating a total of 10 subjects. The healer worked on the assigned subject for one hour per day for six consecutive days with an instruction to "direct an intention for health and well-being" to the subject. And editorial comment was included before the abstract noting that the study was relatively short and analyzed rather a few patients, no treatment-related mechanism for the effects were suggested, and the statistical methods could be criticized.
Siegel, J.M., & Kuykendall, D.H. (1990). Loss, widowhood and psychological distress among the elderly. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 519-524. (C/S survey of approximately one-half of the members of a Southern California HMO; identified 825 persons age 65 or over who were married or widowed; 14% had experienced the death of a close family member (nonspousal familial loss) within the past 6 months; correlates of depression (CES-D) were examined; multiple regression analysis revealed that lower income, poorer self-rated health, unemployment, and loss of a family member were correlated with depression; an interaction between loss, marital status and church/temple membership was a significant predictor of depression, especially among men; average CES-D score of unmarried men who were not church/temple members who experienced a loss was 19.2, compared with 4.8 for men who were married and members of church/temple (and 12.0 among those with a loss who were not married and members of a church/temple) (p<.01); all widowed men who experienced a loss and were not members of a church or synagogue scored in the depressed range of CES-D) (excellent study)
Siegrist, M. (1996). Church attendance, denomination, and suicide ideology. Journal of Social Psychology, 136(5), 559-66.
Sijuwade, P.O. (1994). Sex differences in stress, illness and coping resources among Nigerian elderly. Social Behavior and Personality, 22, 239-260. (115 elderly Nigerians completed a scale of religious commitment, prayer, and experience of God's presence; outcome self-rated scale of illness; no association)
Silber, T.J., Reilly, M. (1985). Spiritual and religious concerns of the hospitalized adolescent. Adolescence, 20 (77), 217-224.] (C/S survey of 114 adolescents ages 11-19 newly hospitalized at Children's Hospital National Medical Center in Washington, DC (systematic sample); 66% female, 51% Black, 81% attending public schools; patients with severely and likely fatal disease (n=24), severe (n=53), and moderate (n=37); 9-item Spiritual and Religious Concerns Questionnaire (SRQ) (authors'); results indicated that most believed in God and about half were actively practicing their religion; the more severely ill the patients, the higher the SRQ scores (regardless of sex or race); nearly half of the adolescents with severe, perhaps fatal illness reported that they had experienced a marked change in their religious/spiritual concerns as a result of their illness) (no controls) (good study)
Simon et al. (1999). An international study of the relation between somatic symptoms and depression. The New England Journal of Medicine, 341, 1329-1335. Studying 25,916 patients at 15 primary care centers in 14 countries on five continents (5447 of patients underwent structured assessment of depressive and somatoform disorders). A total of 10.1% of patients met criteria for major depression. 69% of patients with depression reported only somatic symptoms. Half of the depressed patients reported multiple unexplained somatic symptoms, and 11% denied psychological symptoms of depression on direct questioning.
Simons, R.L., & West, G.E. (1984-85). Life changes, coping resources, and health among the elderly. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 20, 173-187. (C/S survey of 299 of 625 randomly sampled elderly Midwestern adults (from senior citzen's center, churches and civic organizations) with a major life crisis in past year; religiosity measured by 4-item scale of prayer, reading religious materials, felt presence of God, and religious commitment; SLE measured with Geriatric Schedule of Recent Experiences; outcome was 48-item Seriousness of Illness Rating Scale; SLE were positively related to illness, but religiosity was unrelated to health status)
Simpson, M. E., & Conklin, G. H. (1989). Socioeconomic development, suicide, and religion: A test of Durkheim's theory of religion and suicide. Social Forces, 67(4), 945-964.
Simpson, W.F. (1989). Comparative longevity in a college cohort of Christian Scientists. Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 1657-1658. (case-control study examining mortality rate in 2,630 male and 2,938 female Christian Scientists (CS) who received a college education at Principia College (4-year liberal arts college in Elsah, Ill) between 1934 and 1982; comparison group was 17,743 male and 12,105 female students who received college education in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at U of Kansas, Lawrence; 3% of Principia students and 13% of U of K students had no registered address with alumnia office (assumed all 3% of P students alive and 13% of U of K students have same mortality rate as rest of U of K sample); life table method used to compared mortality separately in men and women, using 5-year blocks; CMH test used to compared death rates, finding higher death rates in CS males (p=.042) and females (p=.003); note that only age and sex were "controlled"; baseline health status was not controlled (perhaps persons with health problems more likely to become CS's) (indicates that these results are consistent with findings of Wilson GE (1965). Christian Science and longevity. J Froensic Sci, 1, 43-60, which indicates that death rate of CS from cancer is double the national average -- despite their avoidance of smoking and drinking -- and 6% of all CS deaths are preventable) (good study)
Singh, B. K. (1979). Correlates of attitudes toward euthanasia. Social Biology, 26, 247-254.
Singh, B.K., & Williams, J.S. (1982). Satisfaction with health and physical condition among the elderly. Journal of Psychiatric Treatment and Evaluation, 4, 403-408. (C/S survey of pooled data from six national probability samples (1973-1998) conducted by NORC; 1,459 persons age 65 or over were examined from these samples; single item (7-point) assessed satisfaction with health and physical condition; religious attendance and 11 other covariates (including social memberships, alcohol use, smoking, and hospital admissions in past 5 years) were examined as predictors of health satisfaction; multivariate analysis revealed that the strongest predictor of health satisfaction was religious attendance) (excellent study)
Singh, B.K., Williams, J.S., & Ryther, B.J. (1986). Public approval of suicide: A situational analysis. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 16, 409-417. (C/S using pooled data form four national surveys (1977, 1978, 1982, 1983) (6521=n) examining public opinion regarding suicide in four situations: incurable disease, bankrupcy, family dishonor, and being tired of living; persons with lower religiosity (particularly lower church attendance) were more likely to consider suicide as acceptable; religious attendance and education level were the two major predictors of attitudes toward suicide) (regression models) (excellent study)
Sinha, PK (1998). Hinduism and medical practice. Journal of the Medical Association of Georgia, 87, 312-314.
Sivan, A.B., Fitchett, G.A., & Burton, L.A. (1996). Hospitalized psychiatric and medical patients and the clergy. Journal of Religion and Health, 35, 11-19. (case-control study of 51 psychiatric inpatients and 50 age-gender matched inmedical patients; asked if had a clergy person/spiritual advisor, and if so, whether patient talked with clergy person/spiritual advisor about this hospitalization; 42% of both psychiatric and medical patients reported having a clergy person; psychiatric patients were less likely to have spoken with that person about curent hospitalization (24% vs 81%, p<.0005); after controlling for other factors using logistic regression, location of patient (psych vs med-surg) only factor that predicted whether talked with clergy) -- HGK Average age was 45.6 yrs., 52% Female, 48% Male. 56% of med/surgery married and only 26% psych married, 56% of med/surgery white, 84% of psych white. ~ 50% of med/surgery Protestant ~` 33% Catholic. 35% of psych patients Protestant and ~ 33% Catholic. 39% of psych patients had diagnosis of depression, 28% bipolar depression, 14% schizoaffective disorders, 6% mood disorder and 14% other (paranoia, substance abuse, panic disorder, adjustment disorder). 42% in each group reported they had a clergy person or spiritual advisor. Married/widowed subjects more likely to report talking to clergy (p=.035), non-white more likely as well (p=.043), and med/surgery group more likely than psych group (x2 = 13.75, p = .00021) to talk to clergy. Those that said they talked clergy had a lower time since diagnosis (29 months vs. 60 months p= .006), less time since current admission (7.5 days vs. 14.3 days p=.04) and scored higher on Private Religiosity scale (p=.05), Spiritual Well-being scale (p = .03), Religious Well-being scale (p = .01), and Existential Well-being scale (p= .02). -- TB
Skirboll, B. (1998). Friendship proofs the perfect safety net for the mentally ill. Knight-Ridder news wire. Durham Herald-Sun, p A13, August 7, 1998. (Discusses Compeer, a nonprofit organization that stresses friendship as a means of healing. Persons volunteer to assist and/or the friend individuals recovering from mental illness. Friendship can mean the difference between hospitalization or the ability to adapt in society. Compeer has now been operating for 25 years through 120 programs in that many cities across the United States, Canada, and Australia. In 1997, it helped 5,700 persons with chronic mental illness. According tool paid 1997 survey conducted by Compeer, clients had significant reduction in their rate of re-hospitalization and the rate of urgency room use. Compeer friendship averages only $375 or $1,100 per person per year depending on the region of the country; compare that to psychiatric hospitalization costs that can ranges high as $500 per day per person or $200,000 annually.
Skog, O. J., Teixeira, Z., Barrias, J., & Moreira, R. (1995). Alcohol and suicide: The Portuguese experience. Addiction, 90(8), 1053-1061.
Skyring, A., Modan, B., Crocetti, A., & Hammerstrom, C. (1963). Some epidemiological and familial aspects of coronary heart disease: Report of a pilot study. Journal of Chronic Disease, 16, 1267-1279. (all deaths from CHD of persons age 45 years and under between 1954 and 1957 was determined for the city of Baltimore (ASCVD, endocarditis, myocardial degeneration) (n=413); no association with major religious affiliation) (no controls)
Sloan, R.P., Bagiella, E., & Powell, T. (1999). Religion, spirituality, and medicine. The Lancet, 353, 664-667.
Sloan, R.P., Bagiella, E, VandeCreek, L., Hover, M., Casalone, C., Hirsch, T.J., Hasan, Y., Kreger, R. (2000). Should physicians prescribe religious activities? NEJM, 342, 1913-1916.
Sloan, RP, Bagiella, E. (2000). Without a prayer: methodological problems, ethical challenges, and misrepresentations in the study of religion, spirituality and medicine. In Plante, T (ed), Faith and Health: Perspectives on the Relationship between Religious Faith and Health Outcomes. NY, NY: Guilford Press
Sloane, D.M., Potvin, R.H. (1986). Religion and delinquency: Cutting through the maze. Social Forces, 65, 87-105. (C/S survey of national probability sample of 1,121 American adolescents (ages 13-18) drawn from 1975 Gallup Survey; religiosity measured by 2 items: attendance at religious services and influence of religion on how one spends time during the day; 12 measures of delinquent behavior was dependent variable; both religious variables inversly related to truancy, running away, sexual intercourse, alcohol, marijuana, other drugs, damage to school property, minor theft, and (for religious influence) serious fights and gang fights) (all p<.05, uncontrolled); concluded, after testing several regression models, that the association between religion and delinquency uncovered was not conditional on type of offense considered, and was similar for both sexes, for younger nad older adolescents, and for persons from varying social backgrounds and regions of the country: "Bivariate results suggest tha both church attendance and religious influence are strongly associated with each of the offenses, so that frequent attenders and those who claim considerable religious influence have considerably lower odds on being a frequent vs. non-offender with respect to each act than non- or rare attenders or those on whom religion, by their own account, exerts no influnece. Multivariate results indicate that for all offenses except truancy the effect of church attendance and religious influence can be described as equal and additive (on a logarithmic scale)." (p 103-104) (excellent)
Smith, B.W. (1996). Coping as a predictor of outcomes following the 1993 Midwest flood. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 11, 225-239. (209 church members surveyed 1 mo after flood and again 7 months after flood (n=131); religious salience and church attendance measured at baseline; religious salience related to pos affect at Time 2 (beta=.23, p<.01) and church attendance inversly related to pos affect at Time 2 (beta=-.38, p<.01); multiple controls.
Smith, C.B., Weigert, A.J., & Thomas, D.L. (1979). Self-esteem and religiosity: An analysis of Catholic adolescents from five cultures. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 18, 51-60. (C/S survey of self-esteem and religiosity examined in twelve purposive, middle-calss, Catholic adolescents (n=1,995) from cities in five cultures: New York and St. Paul; Merida, Mexico (Yucatan); San Jaun, Peurto Rico; Seville, Spain; and Bonn, Germany; self-esteem measured by semantic differential technique of Osgood et al (1957); religiousness measured in terms of Glock & Stark's dimensions of belief, practice, experience, and knowledge; correlations between overall religiosity and self-esteem (uncontrolled) ranged from -.14 to 0.37, but were significant (p<.05) and positive in 9 of 12 subgroups of the population (based on sex and location); concluded that "the findings yield consistent cross-cultural support for the first hypothesis [a positive relationship between adolescent self-esteem and total religiosity]" (p 56)
Smith et al. (1992). Belief in afterlife as a buffer in suicidal and other bereavement. Omega, 24, 217-225.
Smith, D.K., Nehemkis, A.M., & Charter, R.A. (1983-84). Fear of death, death attitude, and religious conviction in the terminally ill. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 13, 221-232. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 20 patients with terminal illness from a medical oncology section and nurshing home care unit of a large VA medical center in Long Beach, CA, (19 with metastatic CA) (mean age 61); religiousness measured by two-item scale: importance of religion on a 1-9 scale and church attendance on a 1-5 scale; death anxiety measured by four scales: (a) conscious fear of death measured by a single item, (b) Collett-Lester Fear of Death subscale, and (c) measured at fantasy level by 16 images developed by Feifel and Nagy that subjects had to rate on a 7-point scale from a very positive to a very negative concept of death, and (d) Spilka et al's Death Perspective Scale; church attendance inversely related to all three fear of death measures (a-c), but significantly related only to Feifel and Nagy images (c) (-.51, p<.05); positively related to "afterlife-of-reward subscale of Death Perspective Scale (.46, p<.05); importance of religion positively related to afterlife-of reward and courage DPS subscales (.80, p<.01 and .55, p<.05), and inversely related to indifference subscale (-.71, p<.01), but was unrelated to any of fear of death measures)
*Smith ED. (1992). Hypertension management with church-based education: a pilot study. Journal of the National Black Nurses Association 6(1):19-28.
*Smith ED, Merritt SL, Patel MK. (1997). Church-based education: an outreach program for African Americans with hypertension. Ethnic Health 2(3):243-53.
Smith, J.S., & Davison, K. (1971). Changes in the pattern of admission for attempted suicide in Newcastle upon Tyne during the 1960's. British Medical Journal, 4, 412-415 - other file
Smith, P.M. (1956). Prisoners' attitudes toward organized religion. Religious Education, 51, 462-464. (CS, conv, 50 Michigan prisoners; asked about CM, ORA, NORA, RB (#15); no control group, simply reported religious beliefs and attitudes; concluded that no evidence that religion proved an effective antidote to crime) (R-1) (descriptive)
Smith, R.E., Wheeler, G., & Diener, E. (1975). Faith without works: Jesus people, resistance to temptation, and altruism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 5, 320-330. (intervention study / clinical trial involving 402 Univ of Washington undergraduate students in psychology; subjects were divided in 4 groups by religious belief (Jesus people, religious subjects (except not required to support Jesus revolution, and did not include membership in any Jesus people organization), non-religious subjects, and atheists; the opportunity to cheat was presented to each of the 4 groups; cheating index was constructed; there was no significant difference in presence or magnitude of cheating between the four groups; also, there was no difference between groups in proportion committing themselves to perform an altruistic act) (negative study)
Smith S, Freeland M, Heffler S, McKusick D, and the Health Expenditures Projection Team (1998). The next ten years of health spending: What does the future hold. Health Affairs, 17, 128-140. (national health expenditures expected to increase from 1.1 trillion (1998) to over 2.1 by the year 2007; Medicare from 203 billion (1998) to 416 billion (2007).
Smith, T.W., Allred, K.D., Morrison, C.A., & Carlson, S.D. (1989). Cardiovascular reactivity and interpersonal influence: Active coping in a social context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 209-218. (two experiments conducted with undergraduates in introductory psychology (n=148 Study 1 and n=79 Study 2); examined efforts to secure positive outcomes or avoid negative outcomes on systolic BP, diastolic BP, and heart rate (HR); showed significantly higher SBP, DBP, and HR especially in male subjects; reactivity levels increased as magnitude of incentive for success increased) (shows effects that stress can have on BP acutely in healthy college students)
Smith, TW (1998). The review of church attendance measures. American Sociological Review, 32,131-136. (Suggested that although standard survey items seem to yield modest over reports, respondents often understand religious attendance to be broader than formal participation in worship surveys; much of the so-called "over-reporting" of religious attendance represent individuals' participation in prayer groups, Bible studies, and the like)
Sodestrom, K.E., & Martinson, I.M. (1987). Patients' spiritual coping strategies: a study of nurse and patient perspectives. Oncology Nursing Forum, 14, 41-46 (C/S survey of convenience sample of 25 cancer patients from non-sectarian medical center in California; ratings of use of 15 spiritual strategies for coping with cancer; prayer was the most frequently used spiritual strategy for coping with cancer; among spiritual resource person, 92% indicated family, 76% clergy, 68% friend, 48% nurse and 23% physician) (descriptive)
Soeken, KL, Carson, V. J. (1986). Study measures nurses' attitudes about providing spiritual care. Health Progress, April issue, 52-55.
Sonnenblick, M., Friedlander, Y., Steinberg, A. (1993). Association between wishes of terminally ill parents and decisions by their offspring. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 41,599-604.
Sorenson, A.M., Grindstaff, C.F., & Turner, R.J. (1995). Religious involvement among unmarried adolescent mothers: A source of emotional support? Sociology of Religion, 56, 71-81. (PC study of 261 teenage mothers before delivery and 4 weeks after delivery (33 married and 228 unmarried); Southwest Ontario; systematic sampling; examined depression (CES-D) during first few weeks after babies were born; 3 items: religious affiliation, church activities, and self-rated religiousness; Catholics and more conservative religious groups affiliates had higher depression scores (p=.008, from regression, but - see below), and those who attended religious services more frequently had higher depression (p=.006, from regression, but only religious variables and cohabitation in models); highest scores among girls who cohabitated with someone while continuing to attend religious services; concluded that religion may foster feelings of guilt or shame, eroding feelings of competence, self-worth, and hopefulness and encouraging the withdrawal of community support to those who do not conform to social norms) (R-6)
Sorri et al. (1996). Religiosity and suicide: findings from a nationwide psychological autopsy study. Crisis, 17 (3), 123-127.
Spalding, M. (1998). Present at the creation: America's founders and religion. The Weekly Standard, August 3, 1998, pp 35-37 (In 1776, according to one estimate, between 71 in 77% of Americans attended regular services. In the first Congress under the new Constitution, George Washington declared in his 1796 farewell address the following: "Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens." (p 36)
Spangler, J. G., Bell, R.A., Knick, S., Michielutte, R., Dignan, M.B., & Summerson, J.H. (1998). Church-related correlates of tobacco use among Lumbee Indians in North Carolina. Ethnicity and Disease, 8,73-80. (Study of 400 Lumbee Indians that found smokers who attended church each week use 35% less cigarette per day than smokers who didn't attend. Among those who had taken up smoking sometime in their life, smokers who rarely attended church in the past year were 79% less likely to have quit. Meanwhile persons who went to church each week were 73% less likely to rank as current smokers. Though researchers note, "Minority populations in the United States suffer a disproportionately higher burden of tobacco related mortality and years of potential life lost.". Furthermore, "tobacco use has been a part of Native American culture since before European conquest; cultural sensitivity to this issue is imperative". Researchers add however, that "with high levels of membership and participation, churches may be ideal avenues" for helping Native American Indians quit or reduce their smoking.
Spellman, C.M., Baskett, G.D., & Byrne, D. (1971). Manifest anxiety as a contributing factor in religious conversion. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 245-247. (C/S survey of convenience sample of 60 adults living in a rural area of Texas (23 males, 37 females, mean age 39, most Protestant); divided into one of three categories of 20 subjects each by the consensus of two town ministers: (1) no religious affliation or interest, (2) regular church attenders, and (3) those with a history of a sudden religious conversion; anxiety measured by Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS); anxiety scores significantly higher for sudden conversion group than in regular attenders or those without religious interest (26.7 vs. 17.8 vs. 18.4, p<.001); sudden converts with significantly higher anxiety scores than other two groups; concluded that sudden conversion does not effectively resolve the concerns of these individuals (no controls, although age, sex, and interactions with religious category were unrelated to MAS scores and didn't need to be controlled)
Spence, C., Danielson, T.S., & Kaunitz, W.M. (1984). The Faith Assembly: A study of perinatal and maternal mortality. Indiana Medicine, March, 180-183 (case-control study involving investigation of perinatal and maternal mortality in religious group in Indiana which practices out-of-hospital, non-physician-attended birthing with no prenatal care; compared deliveries in Kosciusko and Elkhart counties (where members of Faith Assembly lived) between 1975 and 1982 (26,618) with those of other Indiana counties (n=681,497) during same period; compared to other Indiana women, Faith Assembly women were less likely to have had at least one prenatal visit (0% vs 99%); perinatal mortality rate among Faith Assembly women was 48/1,000 live births, compared with 18/1,000 live births for state (p<.01); maternal mortality for Faith Assembly women was 872/100,000 live births, vs 9/100,000 live births in rest of state (p<.001) (no controls)
Spence, C., & Danielson, T.S. (1987). The Faith Assembly: A follow-up study of faith healing and mortality. Indiana Medicine, March, 238-40. (perinatal mortality between 1983 and 1985 were compared with rates between 1975 and 1982; 17 perinatal deaths occurred between 1975 and 1982 compared with 8 deaths between 1983 and 1985, despite increasing number of live births during the latter period; since 1983, perinatal mortality has declined from 3 to 1.5 times the rate for Indiana, and maternal mortality has been eliminated, despite the relatively large number of births; this was due to intervention by the Indiana General Assembly, requiring the reporting of witheld medical care -- even if the parents object for religious reasons) (no statistics)
Spencer, J. (1975). The mental health of Jehovah's witnesses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 556-559. (case-control study of all 50 JW with schizophrenia (22 with paranoid schizophrenia) admitted to Western Australian Mental Health Servcie Psychiatric Hospitals during a 36 month period between 1971 and 1973 (of the 4,000 JW's in Western Australia); this is three times more schizophrenics (1.83/1000 vs. 0.61/1000) and nearly four times more paranoid schizophrenics (1.4/1000 vs. 0.38/1000) in JW that in persons living in the rest of the country (p<.001, uncontrolled); concluded that either JW tends to attract into their group pre-psychotic individuals who may then break down (due to aggressive prosyletizing), or else being a Jehovah Witness is itself a stress that may precipitate psychosis)
Spendlove, D.C., West, D.W., & Stanish, W.M. (1984). Risk factors and the prevalence of depression in Mormon women. Social Science and Medicine, 18, 491-495. (C/S telephone survey using random-digit dialing conducted of 179 married white English-speaking women with children age 14 years of age or younger living in the Salt Lake City area; church membership, attendance, and Hoge IR scale were assessed; Beck depression inventory administered; 143 Mormon women were not significantly more or less depressed than 36 non-Mormons; church attendance and IR were associated with lower depresssion (17.8% vs 41.7% and 19.0% vs 34.9%), but relationships disappeared when education, caring from spouse, health, and income were controlled)
Spiegel, D., Bloom, J.R., & Gottheil, E. (1983). Family environment as a predictor of adjustment to metastatic breast carcinoma. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 1, 33-44. (12-month prospective cohort study of a consecutive series of 58 of 109 women with metastatic CA of breast referred to study (clinical trial of group support vs. control) by their oncologists over a six-month period from 3 treatment centers in California (62% married, ave age 55, ave time since recurrence was 2 years); surveyed at baseline, 4, 8, and 12 months; POMS used to measure mood and outcome variable was change in mood during 12 months; "moral-religious" orientation was measured by a subscale of the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos 1981) (family attends church, emphasizes prayer--patient's rating of family environment -- not patient's religious activity); stepwise multiple regression was used to predict change in mood during the course of one year (n=54); stronger family moral-religious orientation was associated with more mood disturbance in patient (beta .43, p<.05); concluded that while this finding may have been due to selection factors, the extent that th patient's energy is put into seeking support in the religious domain may result in their losing valuable support within their family) (negative effect for religion)
Spiegel, D., Bloom, J.R., Kraemer, H.C., & Gottheil, E. (1989). Effect of psychosocial treatment on survival of patients with metastatic breast cancer. The Lancet, 2(8668), 888-891. (clinical trial involving a psychosocial intervention on survival among 86 women with metastatic breast CA; 1-year intervention consisted of weekly supportive group therapy with self-hypnossis for pain; at 10-year followup, only 3 patients were alive and death records obtained for other 83; among those receiving the intervention, average survival was 36.6 months compared to 18.9 months in the control group (p<.0001, Cox model); differences in survival began 8 months after the intervention ended)
Spiegel, D. (1990). Can psychotherapy prolong cancer survival? Psychosomatics, 31, 361-366. (review)
Spiegel, D. (1992). Effects of psychosocial support on patients with metastatic breast cancer. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 10, 113-120. (excellent review on social support and survival and immune system functioning)
Spilka, B., Stout, L., Minton, B., & Sizemore, D. (1977). Death and personal faith: A psychometric investigation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16, 169-178. (C/S survey conducted of students at a church affiliated Rocky Mountain college, students at a conservative church college in Georgia, and active members of a Methodist church in Idaho; 328 persons ages 17-83; 182 males, 146 females, averaging 23.6 years; 167 of these persons who attended church at least twice/month and rated importance of religion high (7-9 out of 9), were selected for a study of different view of death: natural end (natural end of life, terminal point with nothing beyond), pain (death as separation from others, isolation, abandonment), unknown (mysterious, unfathomable), punishment (retribution for wrongdoing), forsaking (guilt over leaving dependents), failure (personal defeat), reward (benevolent eternity), courage (death as opportunity to show character & strength), indifference (no importance); also took Allport-Ross I-E scale and Committed-Consensual measures; intrinsic religiosity was inversely related to loneliness-pain, indifference, unkown, and failure, and positively related to afterlife-of-reward and to a lesser degree, courage (.12); same pattern for Committed; extrinsic religiosity was positively related to loneliness-pain, indifference, unknown, forsaking dependents, failure, and natural end) (no controls)
Spilka, B., Spangler, J.D., & Nelson, C.B. (1983). Spiritual support in life threatening illness. Journal of Religion and Health, 22, 98-104. (C/S survey of convenience sample; experiences of 45 parents of children with cancer and 101 cancer patients with their home pastors and hospital chaplains; persons in these circumstances appear to desire spiritual support more than psychological aid; 29% of patients (average 2.5 visits) and 42% of parents of children with CA (average 2.8 visits) had visits in their homes by their pastors; 66% of patients and 56% of parents of children with CA received visits by home clergy when hospitalized; 56% of both group saw a hospital chaplain); 22%-47% of patient contacts involved prayer, although home pastors prayed more with patients (46%) and chaplains less (22%) (descriptive study)
Spilka, B., Zwartjes, W.J., & Zwartjes, G.M. (1991). The role of religion in coping with childhood cancer. Pastoral Psychology, 39, 295-304 (Q) (C/S survey of 265 members of 118 families with a child who had cancer; religion appeared to act as a protective-defensive system that motivated efforts by family members to cope constructively) (descriptive study)
Sporakowski, M.J., & Hughston, G.A. (1978). Prescriptions for happy marriage: adjustments and satisfactions of couples married for 50 or more years. The Family Coordinator, 321-327 (C/S survey of convenience sample of forty couples (mean age men 78, women 75) from a list of names of couples celebrating 50th wedding anniversary in Ronoke, Virginia area, and from list of names provided bystudents in a family life class offered in Reston, Virginia; completed Lock-Walace Marital Adjustment scale; subjects were asked in an open-ended fashion to list ingredients of a happy marriage; in response to the open-ended question, women rated importance of religion as the most important factor, followed by love, "give and take," "home/family/children", etc.; husbands rated religion 5th, after "takes two to make a marriage", honesty and trust, "give and take", and "marriage is for life"; despite this, no mention made of religion in discussion) (descriptive study)
Spreitzer, E., & Snyder, E.E. (1974). Correlates of life satisfaction among the aged. Journal of Gerontology, 29, 454-458. (C/S survey using pooled NORC data for 1972 and 1973 to obtain data on 1323 persons under age 65 and 224 persons age 65 or over; life satisfaction, self-assessed health, financial satisfaction, and social class were all measured by single variables; church attendance measured by a scale from 1-9; with nine other covariates controlled, CA was significantly related to life satisfaction among those under age 65 (n=1323) (multiple correlation=.33, p<.05), but was not related to life satisfaction in elderly (n=224))
Srole, L., Langner, T., Michael, S.T., Opler, M.K., & Rennie, T.A.C. (1962). Mental Health in the Metropolis: Midtown Manhattan Study (vol 1), NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co (surveyed 1660 of 1911 randomly selected midtown Manhattan residents; unchurched respondents from all three religious groups (Protestants 34%, Catholics 50%, and Jews 13% composition of sample) showed a less favorable mental health picture. Likewise persons whose parents did not feel religion was important at all had the largest "impaired" rate and the smallest "well" representation; this was particularly true in the lower and middle SES groups and in Protestants in particular. Finally, Jews are more likely to seek psychiatric outpatient treatment than Catholics or Protestants, having a frequency of psychiatric clinic visits of almost four times greater than Protestants or Catholics. Comparing their rates of psychiatric symptoms, Jews have significantly lower rates of over all "impaired" psychiatric status (17.2 % vs. 24.7 % and 23.5 %) than Catholics and Protestants, although they also have the lowest rate of being completely "well" (14.5 % compared with 17.4 % and 20.2%); and they have relatively high rates of mild to moderate symptom formation. These results, after controlling for age and socioeconomic status, were significant at the p=.01 level.
Stack, S. (1980). Religion and suicide: A reanalysis. Social Psychiatry, 15(2), 65-70.
Stack, S. (1981). Suicide and religion: A comparative analysis. Sociological Focus, 14, 207-220.
Stack, S. (1982). Suicide: A decade review of the sociological literature. Deviant Behavior, 4, 41-66.
Stack, S. (1983c). A comparative analysis of suicide and religiosity. Journal of Social Psychology, 119(2), 285-286.
Stack, S. (1983a). The effect of religious commitment on suicide: A cross-national analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 362-374. (data collected for 25 nations on age and sex-specific suidie rates and available independent variables (World Health Organization) for the year 1970; importance of religion was determined by religious book production (higher number of religious books produced as percentage of all books produced, the higher the importance of religious culture); multiple regression analysis used to assess effect of religiosity on suicide rates, controlling for level of development (industrialization) and gender-quality; the higher the religious book production, the lower the female suicide rate (particularly in females aged 35-44); however, this is not true for males, where coefficients in the expected direction, but not significant except in the case of elderly males aged 65-74 where they approach significance (p<.10))
Stack, S. (1983b). The effect of the decline in institutionalized religion on suicide, 1954-1978. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 22, 239-252. (describes decline of institutionalized religion, effects of religiosity on suicide, and reviews suicide rates in US from 1954 to 1978 (US National Center for Health Statistics); average church/synagogue attendance us used as measure of religiosity (Gallup polls) (greatest decline was for 18-29 yo age group); showed that an increase in CA of 1% decreases suicide rate by .59%, compared to similar effects of military participation (.14%) or unemployment (.11%) on suicide; effects greatest in 15-20 year olds (great graphs) (regressions) (R-8)
Stack, S. (1985). The effect of domestic/religious individualism on suicide, 1954-1978. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47, 431-447.
Stack, S. (1987). The sociological study of suicide: Methodological issues. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 17, 133-150 (very nice R) (while differences in suicide rates based on religious affiliation are disappearing -- because differences between Catholics and Protestants are disappearing, including ritual attendance, strength of orthodoxy, etc. -- there is relatively strong evidence that religiousness is related to lower suicide rates)
Stack, S. (1991). The effect of religiosity on suicide in Sweden: A time-series analysis. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 462-468.
Stack, S., & Lester, D. (1991). The effect of religion on suicidal ideation. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 26(4), 168-170.
Stack, S., & Wasserman, I. (1992). The effect of religion on suicide ideology: An analysis of the networks perspective. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31(4), 457-466.
Stack, S. (1992a). Religiosity, depression, and suicide. In J.F. Schumaker (Ed.), Religion and Mental Health (pp. 87-97). New York: Oxford University Press.
Stack, S. (1992b). The effect of divorce on suicide in Finland: A time series analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54(3), 636-642.
Stack, S., Wasserman, I. M., & Kposowa, A. (1994). The effects of religion and feminism on suicide ideology: An analysis of national survey data. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33(2), 110-121.
Stack, S., & Wasserman, I. (1995). The effect of marriage, family, and religious ties on African American suicide ideology. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 215-222. (C/S survey using pooled data from 1972-1990 GSS from NORC (national probability sample); 1,197 Blacks and 8,204 whites in sample; church attendance; suicide beliefs or attitudes measured by four-item scale; using linear regression, found church attendance inversely related to suicide ideology among Blacks (std beta=-.15, p<.05); among whites, church attendance was strongest correlate of suicide ideology (std beta = -.27, p<.05) among a field of 8 correlates in the model) (important study)
Stack, S. (1997). A comparative analysis of the effect of domestic institutions on suicide ideology. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 28, 304-319. This is a comparative, cross-national sociological study consisting of "...data from 17 nations covered in the World Values Survey (World Values Study Group, 1991)." (p.309). Suicide ideology was measured on one item of a global attitudes survey -- a 10-point scale where 1=strong disapproval of suicide and 10= a strong approval of suicide. A one-way ANOVA on the mean level of pro-suicide ideology was performed by marital status. In all nations, the mean score for non-marrieds was higher than the mean for marrieds. In 14 of the 17 nations, the difference between marrieds and non-marrieds was significant (p<0.05). A one-way ANOVA on the mean level of pro-suicide ideology was also performed by country for those who have children and those who do not. "Persons without children report a higher level of support for suicide than persons with children." (p.312) In 15 of 17 nations, the comparison of associated means was statistically significant (p<0.05). A multiple regression analysis did not yield any consistent, significant results. Religiosity, measured by church attendance, was a control variable only in this study. Northern Ireland was noted as an exception in this study because the strong Catholic norms against suicide prevalent in the country may yield insignificant differences when marrieds are compared to non-marrieds or those with children are compared with childless adults.
Stack, S. (1998). Heavy metal, religiosity, and suicide acceptability. Suicide & Life-threatening Behavior, 28, 388-394.
Standards for Behavioral Health Care, 1999 (1999-2000). Oakbrook Terrace: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), PE. 1.7.1.3, p 71. Also see JCAHO, RI.1.2.6, p 52 (describes expectation that psychosocial assessments of patients will include information about their spirituality and that resultant treatment plans identify the types of care and services which will meet those needs - i.e., that this be documented in the medical record; these are standards for Patient Rights and Patient Education)
Stark, R. (1963). On the incompatibility of religion and science: A survey of American graduate students. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 3, 3-21. (nice review, plus attempts to isolate factors which affect sudent religiosity in an effort to test the relationship between scientific scholarship and religion; C/S survey of a representative national sample of American graduate students by NORC in 1958 (all univerities which grant PHD in one or more fields of Arts and Sciences) (n=2,842); religious affiliation and religious attendance obtained; compared with general American population, graduate students less likely affiliated with Protestant religious tradition (38% vs 66%) and more often unaffiliated (26% vs 3%); looking at changing religious affiliations, Stark concludes that "a major religious phenomenon associated with being a graduate student is a loss of faith" (p 8); higher quality school a graduate student attends, the less likely he/she is to be religious; combining the kind of school, the quality of undergraduate training, and the quality of the graduate school to form a 6-point scientific scholar index, shows high religious involvement ranging from 88-89% at 0-1 to 17% at 6)
Stark, R. (1965). On the incompatibility of religion and science (ch 14). In Glock CY, Stark R (authors), Religion and Society in Tension. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, pp 265-288.
Stark, R. (1968). Age and faith. Sociological Analysis, 29, 1-10. (Q) (descriptive study) (addresses the question of whether people become increasingly religious as they grow older; concludes that "...people do not get more orthodox or conservative in their religious beliefs as they get older, except that they do incrasingly become certain of the existence of life beyond death.... where Chrsitan belief does assume special relevance for the existential anxieties of aging, in its doctrine of victory over death, the aging process does seem to produce increased belief." (p 7) (not based on longitudinal data, though)
Stark, R., & Glock, C.Y. (1970). American Piety: The Nature of Religious Commitment. Berkeley:University of California Press - see other file
Stark, R. (1971). Psychopathology and religious commitment. Review of Religious Res